The Six Days of Creation, books by Saint Ambrose of Milan, Bishop.

Latin Text from public domain Migne Editors, Patrologiae Cursus Completus.

Translated into English using ChatGPT.

Table of Contents Book One. Of the Work of the First Day. Chapter I. (Sermo I.) Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. (Sermo II.) Chapter VIII. Chapter IX. Chapter X. Book Two. Of the Work of the Second Day. Chapter I. (Sermo III.) Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Book Three. Of the Work of the Third Day. Chapter I. (Sermo IV.) Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Chapter VI. (Sermo V.) Chapter VII. Chapter VIII. Chapter IX. Chapter X. Chapter XI. Chapter XII. Chapter XIII. Chapter XIV. Chapter XV. Chapter XVI. Chapter XVII. Book Four. Of the Work of the Fourth Day. Chapter I. (Sermo VI) Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. Chapter VIII. Chapter IX. Book Five. Of the Work of the Fifth Day. Chapter I. (Sermo VII.) Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. Chapter VIII. Chapter IX. Chapter X. Chapter XI. Chapter XII. (Sermo VIII.) Chapter XIII. Chapter XIV. Chapter XV. Chapter XVI. Chapter XVII. Chapter XVIII. Chapter XIX. Chapter XX. Chapter XXI. Chapter XXII. Chapter XXIII. Chapter XXIV. Chapter XXV. Book Six. Of the Work of the Sixth Day. Chapter I. (Sermo IX.) Chapter II. Chapter III. Chapter IV. Chapter V. Chapter VI. Chapter VII. Chapter VIII. Chapter IX. Chapter X.

Book One. Of the Work of the First Day.

Chapter I. (Sermo I.)

On the beginning, duration, and unity of the world. The errors of philosophers are recounted and criticized.

Did people really adopt such opinions, that some of them posited three principles for everything: God, the archetype, and matter, like Plato and his followers? And did they assert that these are incorruptible, uncreated, and without beginning: and that God, not as the creator of matter, but as the craftsman following the archetype, that is, the idea, made the world out of matter, which they call hyle, and which is said to have given the causes of generation to all things? And did they also believe that the world itself is incorruptible, not created or made? Others, as Aristotle believed, posited two principles, matter and form, and a third, which is called the operative, that was suitably able to bring about what it thought should be created.


What, then, could be more incongruous than to attribute eternity of work to the eternity of Almighty God, or to say that the work itself is God; so that they would exalt with divine honors the sky, the earth, and the sea? From this it happened that they believed the parts of the world to be gods, although there is considerable debate among them about the world itself.

3. For Pythagoras claims that there is only one world; others, like Democritus, say that there are innumerable worlds, as the antiquity of their authority has acknowledged. And Aristotle, for his part, asserts that the world has always existed and always will; in contrast, Plato presumes to argue that the world has not always existed, but will always exist. However, many testify in their writings that neither has the world always existed, nor will it always exist.

4. Among them, is there any true estimation of their disagreements? For some say that the world itself is God, because they think that a divine mind is believed to be within it; others say it is the parts of it, others say it is both; in which neither the shape of the gods, nor the number, nor the place, nor the life, nor the care can be comprehended. Indeed, by the estimation of the world, it is fitting to understand God as fickle, round, fiery, driven by certain movements, without sensation, who is carried by the motion of another, not his own.

Chapter II.

Moses' opinion on the beginning of things, the author of the world, and the creation of matter. The same is recommended by many names: to whom alone, with atoms and ideas expelled, it is shown that belief must be given.

5. Therefore, foreseeing by the divine spirit that these errors of humanity would happen, and perhaps have already begun, the holy Moses, at the beginning of his discourse, says this, 'In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth' (Gen. 1:1); this beginning of things comprehends the author of the world, the creation of matter, so that you may know that God existed before the beginning of the world, or that He Himself is the beginning of all things; just as in the Gospel the Son of God, when the people asked Him, 'Who are You?', answered, 'The beginning, which I also speak to you' (John. 8:25); and that He Himself gave the beginning to things to be born, and that He Himself is the creator of the world, not as an imitator of matter led by some idea, from which He would form His works not according to His own will, but according to the proposed form. And beauty, he says, God made in the beginning; so that by the incomprehensible swiftness of the work He might express the effect of a completed operation before He had indicated the beginning of the work.

6. Who must we pay attention to when saying this? Surely that educated Moses, who was knowledgeable in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, whom Pharaoh's daughter loved as a son and supported with royal assistance, desired to be informed and instructed in all the secular disciplines of prudence. And although he received his name from water, he did not think that everything consisted of water, as Thales said. And even though he was raised in the king's court, he preferred to voluntarily undergo exile for the sake of justice, rather than acquire the enjoyment of sin through the height of tyranny. Finally, before he was called to the task of liberating the people, he was provoked by a natural sense of justice, avenging the injury inflicted upon his fellow citizens. Giving in to envy and denying himself pleasure, he avoided all the disturbances of the royal house and withdrew to the secret depths of Ethiopia. Removed from all other responsibilities, he directed his entire mind towards the knowledge of the divine, desiring to see the glory of God face to face. Scripture testifies to this, saying that no prophet has arisen in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face (Deut. XXXIV,10). Not in a vision, nor in dreams, but face to face with the highest God; not in a form, nor through riddles, but endowed with the clear and evident presence of divine favor.

7. So Moses opened his mouth and poured out what the Lord spoke in him, according to what He had said to him, when he was directing him to Pharaoh the king: 'Go therefore, and I will open your mouth, and teach you what you must speak' (Exod. IV, 12). For if he received what he spoke about releasing the people from God, how much more what he spoke about from heaven? Finally, he dared to say not in the persuasion of human wisdom, nor in the deceitful disputes of philosophy, but in the manifestation of spirit and power, as a witness of the divine work: 'In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth.' He did not, as if the world were created by the collision of atoms, expect a late and lazy task; nor did he think that by contemplating matter, he could shape the world according to a certain discipline, but that he should express God the creator. For the man full of wisdom observed that the mind alone contains the substances, origins, and causes of visible and invisible things, not as philosophers argue, that the more powerful combination of atoms provides a constant cause of persistence, but he judged that those who give such small and insubstantial principles to the heavens and the earth would be weaving a spider's web, which would be connected by chance and dissolved by chance and haphazardly, unless they relied on the divine power of their governor. And not without reason they do not know the governor, who do not know God, through whom all things are ruled and governed. Let us therefore follow Him, who knows both the author and the governor, and let us not be led astray by empty opinions.

Chapter III.

Its beginning to have the world from God: and therefore it, although it is a spherical figure, is not eternal.


8. In the beginning, he said. What a good order, that it asserted first what they were accustomed to deny, that they might know that the world has a beginning, so that people would not think the world to be without a beginning. Hence, when David spoke about the heavens, the earth, and the sea, he said, 'You have made all things in wisdom' (Psalm 103:25). Therefore, he gave a beginning to the world, and he also gave weakness to the creature, so that we would not believe it to be anarchic, uncreated, and a companion of divine substance. And he beautifully added, 'He did not want it to be thought that there was any delay in his doing; but so that people might understand how incomparable of an operator he was, who completed such a work in a short and brief moment of his work, that the effect of his will surpassed the sense of time. No one saw the one working, but they recognized the one who had worked. So where is the delay when you read, 'For he spoke, and they were made; he commanded, and they were created' (Psalm 148:5)?' Therefore, he who fulfilled the majesty of such a great work in an instant of his will, did not consider the use of skill or the expenditure of virtue, so swiftly did he make things that were not, to be, that neither did his will precede his action, nor did his action precede his will.

9. You marvel at the work, you seek the operator, who has given the beginning to such a work, who has made it so quickly? He immediately added, saying that God created the heavens and the earth. You have heard the author, you should not doubt. This is the one in whom Melchizedek blessed Abraham, the father of many nations, saying: Blessed is Abraham by the highest God, who created the heavens and the earth (Gen. XIV, 19 and 22). And Abraham believed in God and said: I will stretch out my hand to the highest God, who created the heavens and the earth. You see that this was not found by man, but God has announced it. For God is indeed Melchizedek, who is the king of peace and justice, with no beginning or end. Therefore, it is not surprising that God, who has no beginning, gave a beginning to all things, so that things that did not exist could begin to exist. It is not surprising that God, who contains everything by His power and encompasses all things with His incomprehensible majesty, has made the visible things, even as He has also made the invisible things. Who would deny that the things which are seen are inferior to the things which are not seen? Since the things which are seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen are eternal. Who would doubt that God has made these things, who spoke through the Prophet, saying: 'Who has measured the waters in the hollow of His hand, and marked off the heavens with a span, enclosed the dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales and the hills in a balance, who has directed the Spirit of the Lord, or who has been his counselor or instructed Him?' (Isaiah 40:12). We also read elsewhere: Because it holds the circuit of the earth and has made the earth as nothing. And Jeremiah says: The gods who have not made the heavens and the earth shall perish from the earth, and from under these heavens. The Lord who made the earth in His power, and established it in His wisdom, and by His understanding stretched out the heavens, and caused a multitude of waters to be in the heaven (Jeremiah 10:11). And he added: Man is made foolish by his knowledge (ibid., 14). For anyone who follows the corruptible things of the world, and from these things believes that they can grasp the truth of divine nature, how can they not be bewitched by the cunning craftiness of disputation?

10. So when you hear so many oracles by which God testifies that he created the world, do not believe that it has no beginning; for it is said that the world is like a sphere, so that no beginning seems to exist; and when it thunders, as if everything is moved around in a circle, it is not easy to comprehend where they begin and where they end; for it is considered impossible to infer the beginning of a circuit by the senses. For you cannot find the beginning of a sphere, or from where the globe of the moon began, or where the monthly eclipse of the moon ends. And indeed, even if you yourself do not comprehend, therefore you do not begin, or by no means cease. If you yourself draw a circle or a line with ink or pen or compass, you do not easily gather visually or mentally where you began or where you ended, with an interval in between; and yet you are witness to both beginning and ending. For even if the sense escapes you, it does not destroy the truth. Those things which have a beginning, also have an end; and to those to whom an end is given, it is evident that a beginning was given. But the Savior himself teaches in his Gospel that the end of the world will come, saying: Heaven and earth will pass away (Matthew XXIV, 55). And further: Behold, I am with you always, until the end of the world (Matthew XXVIII, 20). And the Apostle: For the form of this world is passing away (1 Corinthians VII, 31).

11. Therefore, how do they assert that the world is coeternal with God, and associate it with the creator of all, and argue that the created being is equal to him, and think that the material body of the world should be joined to that invisible and inaccessible divine nature, especially since according to their opinion, they cannot deny that as the parts of the world are subject to corruption and changeability, it is necessary for the whole universe to be subject to the same passions to which its own portions are liable?

Chapter IV.

Various kinds of principles: and in what way God is to be understood as having made the heavens and the earth.

12. Therefore, it teaches that the one who says, 'In the beginning God created heaven and earth,' is the beginning. And this beginning is referred to time, or to number, or to foundation; just as in building a house, the beginning is the foundation. We also know that the beginning of conversion and corruption can be said to be the authority of the Scriptures. The art itself is also the beginning of art, from which the operation of various artists subsequently began. The best end is also the beginning of good works, such as mercy, which is the beginning, pleasing to God what you do. For we are most prompted to bring assistance to men by this consideration. There is also a divine power, which is expressed by this appellation. It is referred to a time, if you wish to say at what time God made the heavens and the earth, that is, at the beginning of the world, when it began to be made, as Wisdom says: When he prepared the heavens, I was there (Prov. 8:27). But if you refer it to number, it is such that you take it first that God made the heavens and the earth, then the hills, the regions, the uninhabitable places. And so, before the rest of the visible creatures, He made day, night, fruitful trees, diverse kinds of animals, heaven and earth. But if you refer to the foundation, you have read that the beginning of the earth is its foundations, as Wisdom says: When He established the foundations of the earth, I was with Him, arranging all things (Wisdom 8:29). It is also the beginning of good discipline, as it is written: The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (Proverbs 1:7); for those who fear the Lord turn away from error and direct their ways to the path of virtue. For unless someone fears God, they cannot renounce sin.

13. And we can also understand the same about this: 'This month shall be to you the beginning of months' (Exod. XII, 2); although it is understood as the 7th in terms of time, because it spoke of the Lord's Passover, which is celebrated at the beginning of spring. Therefore, in this beginning of months, He made the heavens and the earth, which was fitting for the beginning of the world, where a suitable spring season was for everyone. Hence, the year of the world also expressed the image of its birth, so that after winter's ice and winter's mists, the brighter splendor of the usual springtime may shine forth. Therefore, the first rising of the world gave form to the courses of future years, so that by this law the cycles of years would arise and at the beginning of each year the earth would bring forth new shoots of seeds, in accordance with what the Lord God had first commanded: Let the earth bring forth grass, yielding seed according to its kind, and yielding fruit with its seed in it (Gen. 1:11). And immediately the earth brought forth grass and fruit-bearing trees; in which both the divine providence of perpetual moderation and the swift growth of the earth in springtime contribute to our estimation of the passing of time. For although at any time and by God's command it was ready to obey the earthly nature, so that amidst winter's ice and wintry frost it would produce offspring with the nourishing warmth of the heavenly kingdom; nevertheless, it was not fitting to suddenly release the fields, bound by the rigid cold of eternal order, into green crops, and to mingle flowery shoots with the dreadful frost. Therefore, in order to show that the times were written in the constitution of the world, He says: 'This month shall be to you the beginning of months; it shall be the first in the months of the year' (Exodus 12:2), calling the first month the springtime. For it was fitting that the beginning of the year be the beginning of generation, and that generation itself be nurtured by gentler breezes. For tender beginnings of things could not endure the hardship of harsh cold, nor withstand the injury of raging heat.

14. At the same time, it is possible to notice this, because it converges by law, so that at that time it seems to belong to this generation and to these uses, at the time when there is a legitimate transition from this generation to the next. Indeed, in the springtime, the children of Israel left Egypt and crossed the sea, baptized in the cloud and in the sea, as the Apostle said (1 Corinthians 10:1ff): and at that time, the yearly Passover of the Lord Jesus Christ is celebrated, that is, the passage of souls from vices to virtues, from the passions of the flesh to grace and sobriety of mind, and from the leaven of malice and wickedness to truth and sincerity. Therefore, it is said to be regenerated: This month is the beginning of months for you; it is the first for you in the months of the year (Exod. XII, 2). For he forsakes and abandons, who is washed, that understanding prince of this world, saying: I renounce you, devil, and your angels, and your works, and your powers. Nor does he now serve him, either the earthly passions of this body, or the errors of a corrupted mind, who, having plunged into all evil, desires, fortified by good works on both the right and left, to pass over the waves of this present world unharmed. In the book also, which is titled On Numbers, Scripture says: 'The beginning of the nations is Amalek, and his seed shall perish' (Num. XXIV, 20). And indeed, Amalek is not the first of all nations; but because by interpretation Amalek is taken to mean the king of the wicked, and the wicked are the nations: beware lest we should take the prince of this world, who commands the nations doing his will, whose seed shall perish. But his seed are the wicked and the unbelievers, to whom the Lord says: 'You are of your father the devil' (John VIII, 24).


15. It is also a mystical beginning, as it is said, I am the first and the last, the beginning and the end (Rev. 1:8). And that in the Gospel especially, when the Lord was asked who he was, he replied: The beginning, that is also what I speak to you (John 8:25). He who truly and according to his divinity is the beginning of all things, because there is no one before him; and the end, because there is no one beyond him: and according to Solomon (Prov. 8:22) he is the beginning of the ways of the Lord in his works; so that through him the human race might learn to follow the ways of the Lord and to do the works of God. In this beginning, that is, in Christ, God made heaven and earth; because through him all things were made, and without him nothing was made. What was made, in him was life; because in him all things consist. And he himself is the firstborn of all creation, either because before every creature; or because he is holy, because the firstborn of the holy ones are, like the firstborn of Israel, not because before all, but because holier than the rest. But the Lord is holy above all creation and according to the reception of the body; because alone without sin, alone without vanity. But every creature is subject to vanity.

We can also understand: In the beginning God created heaven and earth; that is, before time: just as the beginning of a road is not yet a road, and the beginning of a house is not yet a house. Finally, others have said, ἐν κεφαλαίῳ, as in the head, by which the completion of the work is signified in a brief and small moment. Therefore, there are those who do not understand the beginning as pertaining to time, but before time, καὶ κεφαλαῖον or the head; so that we may say in Latin, as it were, the sum of the work; because the sum of visible things is heaven and earth, which seem to pertain not only to the adornment of this world, but also to a sign of invisible things and a certain proof of those things which are not seen, as is this prophetic statement: The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament proclaims the work of his hands (Ps. 18:1). The Apostle, following others, concluded in the same sentiment, saying: Because His invisible things are understood through the things that are made (Rom. I, 20). For we easily understand that the author of the Angels and Dominations and Powers, who in the moment of His command made this great beauty of the world exist out of nothing, which did not exist before; and He did not give substance to existing things or causes.

Chapter V.

The world is a reflection of divine operation: it is not correctly called the shadow of God by the Gentiles, for it is only fitting for the Son, as the image of God.

17. Therefore, this world is a sample of divine operation; for while the work is seen, the worker is preferred. For just as other arts are active, which are in the motion of the body or in the sound of the voice; when the motion or sound ceases, nothing is left, and nothing remains for those who are watching or listening: others are theoretical, which exercise the power of the mind: others of this kind, so that even when the duty of the operation ceases, the task of the work appears, such as building and weaving, which show skill even when the craftsman is silent, so that the testimony of his work may support the worker. Similarly, this world is a sign of divine majesty, so that through it God's wisdom may be revealed. Seeing this, the Prophet, at the same time raising the eyes of his mind to invisible things, says: How magnified are your works, Lord! You have made all things in wisdom (Psalm 103:24).

18. Nor is it read in vain; because many of the pagans, who desire the world to be co-eternal with God, assert that it also exists spontaneously as a reflection of divine power; and even though they confess that God is the cause of its existence, they still want the cause to be made not according to their own will and arrangement, but in such a way that the cause is like the shadow of a body. For a shadow clings to a body, and brightness is more closely joined to natural light by natural association than by arbitrary will. Therefore Moses beautifully says that God made the heaven and the earth. He did not say that He made them to be subject; He did not say that He provided the cause for the world to exist, but He made them as good as what would be useful: as wise as what He judged to be best: as omnipotent as what He foresaw to be most abundant. However, how could He be like a shadow when there was no body, since the incorporeal representation of God cannot be bodily? How can the splendor of incorporeal light also be bodily?


19. But if you seek the splendor of God, the Son is the image of the invisible God. Therefore, the image is as the God is. God is invisible, and the image is also invisible. For he is the splendor of the Father's glory and the image of his substance. In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. Therefore, the world was made and began to exist, which did not exist before. But the Word of God was in the beginning, and it always was. However, even the Angels, Dominions, and Powers, although they started at some point, they already were when this world was made. For all things have been created and established, visible and invisible, whether Thrones, or Dominions, or Principalities, or Powers: all things were created through him and in him (Colossians 1:16). What does it mean to be created in him? It means that he is the heir of the Father, because the inheritance has passed from the Father into him, as the Father says: Ask of me, and I will give you the nations as your inheritance (Psalm 2:8). However, this inheritance passes from the Father to the Son, and it returns to the Father from the Son. Therefore, the Apostle excellently said in this place that the Son is the author of all things and contains all things in His majesty. And to the Romans, he says about the Father: 'For from Him and through Him and to Him are all things' (Rom. 11:36). From Him is the beginning and origin of the substance of all things, that is, from His will and power. For all things began from His will; because there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things. Indeed, He made them as it were from Himself, because He made them as He desired. Through him is continuation; the end is in him. From him therefore is matter. Through him is the operation that bound and held together all things. In him, because as long as he wishes, all things remain and persist by his power, and their end is returned to the will of God; and by his judgment they are resolved.

Chapter VI.

In heaven and earth, there are four elements from which all things are composed. What is the nature of the heavens, and what is the position of the earth, and how differently have philosophers judged the nature of the heavens: disregarding them, one must listen to divine authority.

20. In the beginning, therefore, God created the heavens and the earth. For time is from this world, not before the world: but the day is a portion of time, not the beginning. And although by the series of reading we can show that on the first day the Lord made day and night, which are the rotations of time; and on the second day he made the firmament, by which he separated the water which is below the heavens and the water which is above the heavens; nevertheless, it is enough for the present assertion that he made the heavens in the beginning, from which there is the prerogative of generation and cause; and that he made the earth, in which the substance of generation would be. For indeed those four elements were created, from which all of these things that are in the world are generated. And indeed four elements, air, fire, water, and earth, which are mixed together in all things. For indeed you will find fire in the earth, which is often produced from stones and iron; and in the sky, since the pole is fiery and shining with bright stars, it can be understood to be water, which is either above the sky or is often sent down to the earth from that upper place in abundant rain. We could gather many things from this if we saw that they were conducive to the building up of the Church. But because it is fruitless to be occupied with these matters, let us focus our minds more on those things which lead to eternal life.

Therefore, it is enough to mention the qualities and substance of the heavens that we find in the writings of Isaiah, who expressed the nature of the celestial sphere in ordinary and familiar language, saying that God has made the heavens firm like smoke, not wanting to reveal its subtle and immaterial nature. And he also speaks of its appearance, saying that God has made the heavens like a vault, within which all things in the sea and on land are enclosed. It is similarly signified when it is read: Because the Lord has stretched out the heavens (Isaiah 34:4). For it is extended like a skin to the dwellings and abodes of the saints; or like a book, so that the names of many who have deserved the grace of Christ by faith and devotion may be written, to whom it is said: Rejoice, because your names are written in heaven (Luke 10:20).

22. It is of no use to speculate about the quality or position of the earth in order to have hope for the future. It is enough to know, according to the divine Scriptures, that the earth is suspended in nothingness (Job 26:7). Why should we debate whether it hangs in the air or is situated above water, as if there were a controversy about how the nature of the thin air could support the weight of the earth? Or how, if it is above the waters, the heavy mass of the earth does not sink into the water? But how was it that the wave of the sea did not yield to it, and that by its movement it spread out on its sides in its own place? Many have also said that the earth is in the middle of the air and remains immovable by its own weight, because it hangs evenly from side to side. About this we think enough has been said by the Lord to his servant Job, when he spoke through the cloud and said: Where were you when I founded the earth? Tell me, if you have knowledge. Who determined its dimensions, if you know? Who is there who has laid the measure upon it, or upon what are its supporting circles fastened? (Job 38:4) And later: I have enclosed the sea with doors, and said: Thus far you shall come, and no farther, and here shall your proud waves be stayed. (Ibid. 10) Does not God clearly show that all things rely on His Majesty for their existence in number, weight, and measure? For it is not the creature that has given the law, but rather it has received it and keeps it. Therefore, the reason why the earth is in the middle, as if suspended by a level balance, is not because of its own weight, but because the majesty of God, by His will, binds it by a law, so that it may remain stable and unchanging above the unstable and empty, as the prophet David also testifies, saying: He has founded the earth upon its firmament, it shall not be moved forever and ever (Ps. 103:5). Here, God is not described merely as an artisan, but as the omnipotent, who has not hung the earth from a certain center, but has suspended it by the command of His will from the firmament, and does not allow it to incline. Therefore we ought not to understand the measure of the center, but of divine judgment; for it is not the measure of art, but of power: the measure of justice, the measure of knowledge; for all things do not pass before His knowledge as if they were immense, but they submit to His knowledge as if they were limited. For when we read, 'I have confirmed its pillars' (Psalm 74:4), we can truly estimate them not by the pillars themselves, but by the virtue that supports the substance of the earth and sustains it. Finally, gather from this that the establishment of the earth is in the power of God, as it is written: 'He looks at the earth, and it trembles' (Psalm 104:32). And elsewhere: 'Yet once more I shake the earth' (Haggai 2:6). Therefore, it does not remain motionless in its balance, but it is frequently moved by the will and power of God, as even Job says: 'For the Lord shakes it from its foundation; its pillars tremble' (Job 9:6). And elsewhere: The naked underworld is in his sight, and there is no covering for death, extending the North for nothing, suspending the earth into nothingness, binding the water in his clouds... The pillars of the heavens tremble and quake at his reproof; by his power he stilled the sea, by his understanding he struck down Rahab. By his wind the heavens were made fair; his hand pierced the fleeing serpent. And these are but the outskirts of his ways, and how small a whisper do we hear of him! But the thunder of his power who can understand? (Job 26:6-14) Therefore, it does not rely on its own foundations, nor does it persist stable on its own supports; but the Lord has established it and sustains it by the firmness of His will; for all the ends of the earth are in His hand. And this simplicity of faith surpasses all arguments. Let others praise that the earth never falls; because according to its nature, it occupies its own region in the middle, since it is necessary for it to remain in its region and not incline towards another part, when it does not move against nature, but according to nature. They proclaim the excellence of the divine artist and eternal creator; for who has not received from him the skill of artists? Or who has given women the knowledge of weaving, or the discipline of variety? Yet I, who am unable to comprehend the deep majesty and excellence of his art, do not rely on the balances and measures of argumentation: but I believe that everything is held in his will, that his will is the foundation of the universe, and that because of him this world still exists. Moreover, it is permissible to assert with the example of the Apostolic authority. For it is written: 'For the creature was made subject to vanity, not willingly, but by reason of him that made it subject, in hope' (Rom. VIII, 20). But the creature itself also shall be delivered from the servitude of corruption, into the liberty of the glory of the children of God, when the grace of divine recompense shall shine forth.

But now let me enumerate the nature and quality of celestial substances that philosophers have woven in their arguments. Some assert that the composite sky is made up of four elements, while others introduce a fifth nature of a new body to its constitution, and posit that it is an ethereal body, to which neither fire, nor air, nor water, nor earth is mixed; these elements have their own course, use and movement of nature, so that the heavier things sink and are carried forward, while the empty and light things rise upwards; for each has its own motion, but these are mixed up in the circuit of the sphere, and lose the force of their course, since the sphere turns in its own circle, and things above are changed for things beneath, as are also the higher things changed for the lower. However, those things which are changed according to the nature of motion are necessarily said to be accustomed to change the qualities of their substances. Therefore, why do we defend that the heavenly body is ethereal, so that it does not seem prone to corruption? For that which is composed of corruptible elements must necessarily be dissolved. For by the very fact that the same elements of nature are different, they cannot have a simple and unchangeable motion, since the motion of different elements opposes each other. For one motion cannot be suitable for all things, and agree with different elements. For the one that is adapted to light elements becomes burdensome to heavier elements. Therefore, when motion towards the higher parts of the heavens is necessary, it is burdensome to earthly things; when descent towards the lower parts is sought, that fiery force is violently attracted. Indeed, it is forced downwards against its own nature. However, everything that is forced in the opposite direction, not serving nature, but necessity, quickly dissolves and is separated into its constituent parts, each returning to its own region. Therefore, considering that these things cannot be stable, they thought that the ether is the substance of the celestial bodies, introducing a fifth nature of matter, believing that it would endure as the everlasting substance of the heavens.

24. But this opinion of prophecy could not withstand the evidence, which the divine majesty of the Lord Jesus Christ also confirmed in the Gospel. For David said: In the beginning you laid the foundations of the earth, O Lord, and the works of your hands are the heavens. They will perish, but you remain; they will all wear out like a garment, and like clothing you will change them, and they will be changed. But you are the same, and your years will have no end (Psalm 102, 26-27). The Lord approved so much in the Gospel that He said: Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will not pass away (Matt. XXIV, 35). Therefore, those who thought that a fifth ethereal body should be introduced in order to assert the perpetuity of the heavens accomplish nothing; for they equally see that the addition of a dissimilar portion of one member to the others usually brings more harm than good to the body. At the same time, note this: when the prophet David mentioned the earth first (Ps. CXLVIII, 5) and later the heavens, it was believed that the work of the Lord needed to be declared; for when He said, "and they were made," it makes no difference what you express first, since both were made simultaneously; at the same time, so that this at least does not seem to be a divine prerogative of the celestial substance, let it be considered as of greater value by the privilege of being the firstborn creature. So let us leave those in their own disputes, who refute themselves through mutual arguments. But for us, it is enough for salvation, not the controversy of disputes, but the truth of teachings; not the cunning of arguments, but the faith of the mind, so that we may serve the Creator rather than the creature, who is God blessed forever.

Chapter VII. (Sermo II.)

Those who try to prove the eternity of matter from the words of Scripture are encountered. The earth is said to be invisible because it was covered with water. Why is it signified to have been created first, before being adorned.

But the earth was invisible and unformed. The skilled craftsman first lays the foundation; then, after the foundation is laid, he distinguishes the various parts of the building and adds ornamentation. Therefore, with the foundation of the earth in place and the substance of the heavens established (for these two are like the hinges of all things), he weaves together: But the earth was invisible and unformed. What does 'was' mean, except that they may not extend their opinions infinitely and without a beginning, and say: Behold, because matter, that is, hyle as the philosophers say, even according to the divine Scripture, had no beginning. But you will answer to those who say this because it is written: Now Cain was a tiller of the ground (Gen. IV, 2). And of him who is called Jubal, Scripture has: He was the father of all who play the harp and flute (Ibid., 21). And, there was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job (Job. I, 1). Therefore, let them cease to argue about the word, especially since Moses has already stated that God created the earth. Therefore, it was, from the time it was created. For if they say that it exists without a beginning, they not only say that God exists, but also that matter exists without a beginning; therefore, they should define where it was. If they say it was in a place, then it follows that a place without a beginning is postulated, in which the matter of things existed, which had no beginning. But if it seems absurd to believe in a place, see if perhaps we should consider the earth as a floating object, which, not having a foundation, was suspended by the wings of the oars. Therefore, where shall we get wings for it, unless perhaps we interpret the prophetic saying in this way: 'From the wings of the earth, we have heard prodigies' (Isa. 24:16)? And this: Woe to the land of ships with wings (Isaiah 18:1)? But if we accept this, in what air did the land fly? It could not fly without air, but air could not yet exist because there was no distinction made of the material of the elements of things, since the elements themselves had not yet been made. So where was this material of wings supported by oars? It was not in the air, because air is the substance of the world: but that air is a substance is taught by the lesson that as soon as an arrow is launched it cleaves the air, which is at once resolved into itself. So where was matter, unless it is said with some insane intention, that it was in God? Therefore, God, who is of invisible nature and inviolable, who dwells in inaccessible light, incomprehensible and most pure spirit, was the place of worldly matter, and it was a part of God in the world, although his mind is not of this world, as it is written: They are not of this world, as I am not of the world (John 17:14).


26. Just as, therefore, invisible things were joined to visible things, and He who gave order and beauty to all joined them together in inharmonious conjunction? Unless it be that, because the earth was invisible, and they believe it to be invisible from its substance; and, therefore, because it was covered with waters, it could not be seen by corporeal eyes; just as many things placed in the depths of waters are unseen by the sight and pass beyond the range of the eye. For nothing is invisible to God, but every creature of the world is estimated by the disposition of the creature. The earth was also invisible, because there was not yet light to illuminate the world, nor was there yet a sun: for afterward the luminaries of the heavens were made. And if the ray of the sun often illuminates even the waters covered by it, and brings forth with the splendor of its light those things which are immersed in the depths, who can doubt that those things which are in the depths cannot be invisible to God; unless perhaps we take the invisible earth in this sense, that it was not yet visited by the word of God and his protection, which did not have man for whom the Lord would look upon the earth, as it is written: “The Lord looked down upon the sons of men, to see if there is an intelligent one, or one seeking after God.” (Psalm 13:2) And elsewhere he says: Judgement was shot from heaven: the earth trembled and was still (Psalm 75:9). And rightly so invisible, because it was unformed, which had not yet received a suitable shape and form from its own creator.

27. And perhaps they may ask: For why did God, just as He said and it came to pass, not bestow suitable decorations upon the rising elements all at once, so that the sky, as soon as it was created, would be adorned with stars and the earth would be clothed with flowers and fruits? Surely He could have done so, but for that reason the things created first are then arranged in order, so that they would not be believed to be truly uncreated and without a beginning, if the species of things appeared as though generated from the beginning and not added afterwards. The unarranged earth is read, and it is honored by philosophers with the same privileges of eternity as God; what would they say if its beauty bloomed from the beginning? Submerged in water, it is described as if it were devoted to a shipwreck of its own principles, and still some do not believe it; what if it claimed its firstborn beauty? It is added that God wanted us to be imitators of him, so that we would first make something and then embellish it; lest while we strive for both at the same time, we cannot fulfill either. But our faith grows in a certain degree. Therefore, God first made, then adorned, so that we may believe that the same one who made, also adorned; lest we think that one adorned, the other created: rather, that both are the works of the same person; that first he would make, then he would arrange, so that one would be believed based on the other. You have a clear testimony of this in the Gospel (John 11:44). For when the Lord is about to raise Lazarus, he commanded the Jews to remove the stone from the tomb, so that seeing the dead, they would later believe that he was raised from the dead. Then he called Lazarus, and he rose from the dead, and coming out with his hands and feet bound. Was he not able to remove the stone, who was able to raise the dead? And he who could restore life to the deceased, could he not untie the bonds? To him, whose feet were bound, he gave the ability to walk, but he could not give the ability to walk when the bonds were broken? But certainly, we observe that he first wanted to demonstrate the dead to their own eyes, so they would believe; then to resurrect; thirdly, to command them to untie the bonds of the funeral; so that faith would be instilled in the unbelieving during these events, and credulity would be born through certain steps.

Chapter VIII.

The earth was formless; both because there was no distinction in it and because it was covered in darkness. The Holy Spirit, who was carried upon the waters, declares this as well as other things, but most importantly, that malice only arises from us.

28. Therefore God made the heavens and the earth first, but not as if they were eternal, but rather that they would be subject to the corruption of created things. Hence in the book of Isaiah it says: Lift up your eyes to the heavens, and look down on the earth; for the heavens will vanish like smoke, and the earth will become worn out like a garment (Isaiah 51:6). This is the earth, which before was formless. For the seas had not yet been separated by their limits, and therefore the earth was flooded by the unstable waves and the deep abyss. Consider that even now the land is accustomed to shuddering with marshy dampness, and it cannot bear the plow when the moisture poured out of the earth is overflowing. Therefore it was uncultivated; as is to be expected of a skillful farmer, unplowed by cultivation, because a cultivator was still lacking. It was uncultivated; because it was devoid of plants, without grassy banks, without shady woods, without fertile fields, without shady mountain slopes, without fragrant flowers, without pleasant vineyards. Deservedly composed, which needed adornments, which lacked the fault of jeweled garlands. For God wanted to show that not even the world itself would have grace unless it had adorned it with various forms of art. The sky itself, covered with clouds, is accustomed to arouse horror in our eyes and sadness in our souls. The earth, soaked with rain, becomes tiresome. The sea, disturbed by storms, what fears do they not instill? The beauty of things is most beautiful, but what would it be without light? What without moderation? What without the gathering of waters, by which the beginnings of this pole were submerged before? Remove the sun from the Earth, remove the globes of the stars from the heavens, everything becomes dark. Thus it was before the Lord infused light into this world. And for this reason the Scripture says: 'And darkness was upon the face of the deep' (Gen. I, 2). Darkness was there, because the splendor of light was lacking. Darkness was there, because the air itself is murky. The water itself is dark because the water in the clouds is dark. There were darknesses over the deep waters. For I do not think that the powers should be understood as evil, because the Lord created their evil; for surely evil is not substantial, but a deviation from the goodness of nature.

Therefore, in the formation of the world, the opinion of evil should be set aside so as not to appear to mix the divine operation and the most beautiful creation with things that are dull, especially since it follows: And the spirit of God hovered over the waters (Genesis). Although some understand this as air, others as the spirit, which we breathe and draw from this vital breath, we, in agreement with the opinion of the saints and the faithful, understand it as the Holy Spirit, so that the work of the Trinity may shine forth in the formation of the world. For it has been stated that in the beginning God created heaven and earth, that is to say, God created in Christ, or the Son of God, or through the Son God created; for all things were made through him, and without him nothing was made, the fullness of operation remained in the Spirit, as it is written: By the word of the Lord the heavens were established, and by the breath of his mouth all their power (Psalm 32:6). Therefore, just as we are taught in the Psalm the operation of the Word, which is the Word of God, and the power which the Holy Spirit gave; so here the prophetic oracle is fulfilled, because God spoke and God made. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. For by adorning the heavenly sphere and beautifying the earth with budding plants, the Spirit was moving over it splendidly, because through it the seeds of new creations were able to germinate, as the prophet said: 'Send forth your Spirit and they shall be created, and you shall renew the face of the earth' (Ps. 103:30). Lastly, the Syrian, who is close to the Hebrews and agrees with them in language in many things, has it this way: 'And the Spirit of God cherished the waters,' that is, brought them to life, so that it could gather new creatures and by its nourishment animate them with vitality. For we also read of the Holy Spirit as creator, with Job saying, 'The divine Spirit who made me' (Job. XXXIII, 4). So whether the Holy Spirit was hovering over the waters, darkness could not have power over them, being contrary to the power of the Spirit, where such grace claimed its rightful place. Or, as some argue, if they consider the air, they should explain why it is called the Spirit of God, when it would have been enough to call it a spirit.

Hi, therefore, desire from our Lord God the first four generated elements: heaven, earth, sea, and air; because the causes of things are fire and air, earth and water, from which the beauty and form of the world are composed. So where could the darkness of spiritual wickedness have found a place when the world was adorned with the august shape of this image? Could God have created evil at the same time? But that evil arises from us, not from the Creator God, produced by the levity of our morals, having no superiority over any creature, nor any authority over natural substance, but rather the defect of mutability and the error of falling away. God wants to eradicate this, how would he generate it himself? The prophet cries out: Stop your wickedness (Is. I, 17). And especially holy David: Cease from evil, and do good (Ps. XXXIII, 15); so how do we give it a beginning from the Lord? But this deadly opinion is of those who thought to disturb the Church. Hence Marcion, hence Valentinus, hence those plagues of the Manicheans, attempted to bring harmful contagions to the minds of the saints. Why do we search for the darkness of death in the very light of life? Divine Scripture suggests salvation, it emits the fragrance of life, so that by reading you may grasp its sweetness, not that you may incur the danger of a precipitous fall. Simply read, O man, do not dig for yourself a corrupt pit as an interpreter; the language is simple because God made heaven and earth. He made what was not, not what was. And the earth was invisible from the moment it was made; it was invisible because water overflowed and covered it, and darkness was spread over it, because it was not yet the light of day, nor the rays of the sun, which usually reveal hidden things even under the water. What then do they say, that God created evil, when contrary and adverse things are by no means generated against themselves? For neither does life generate death, nor does light generate darkness. For the progressions of generations are not like the changes of emotions. Those are turned from contrary things to contrary things by a deflection of purpose: these are not turned from contrary things to adverse things, but rather they are created from the same kind of authors or causes, and are referred to the likeness of their author.


31. What then shall we say? For if it is neither without a beginning, like something uncreated, nor made by God, where does it have its wicked nature? For no wise person has denied that there is evil in this world, since the frequent falls to death in this age are so common. But from what we have already said, we can conclude that it is not a living substance, but rather a corruption of the mind and soul, a deviation from the path of virtue, which often creeps in on careless minds. Therefore, the greatest danger to us is not from outsiders, but from ourselves. The enemy is within, the primary author of error is within, closed off within ourselves. Examine your own intentions, explore the state of your mind, stand guard against the thoughts and desires of your own mind. You yourself are the cause of your wickedness, you yourself are the leader of your crimes, and the instigator of your vices. Why do you call upon the nature of others to excuse your own failings? I hope that you yourself are not driven, I hope that you do not fall, I hope that you do not involve yourself in excessive studies, or in anger, or in desires, which hold us bound as if in certain nets. And certainly it is within us to moderate our studies, to restrain our anger, to control our desires: within us also is the ability to indulge in luxury, to nurture lust, to ignite anger, or to accommodate an inflamed ear, to be more elevated in pride, to pour out into savagery, rather than being restrained by humility, to love gentleness. Why do you accuse nature, O man? She has, as it were, certain impediments, old age and infirmity. But old age itself is sweeter in good morals, more useful in counsel, more prepared for enduring death with constancy, stronger in repressing desires. The infirmity of the body is also sobriety of the mind. Hence the Apostle says: When I am weak, then I am strong (II Cor. XII, 10). Therefore, he did not glory in virtues, but in weaknesses. There also shone forth a divine response from the saving oracle; because strength is perfected in weakness. Those things must be avoided, which come forth from our own will, the sins of youth, and irrational passions of the body. Therefore, of those things over which we have control, let us not seek their origins from outside; nor let us attribute them to others, but let us acknowledge those things which are properly our own. For what we can choose not to do if we do not wish, we should attribute the choosing of this evil to ourselves rather than to others. Therefore, in the judgments of this world, guilt constrains voluntary criminals, not compelled by necessity, and punishment condemns them. For if someone kills an innocent person out of madness, they are not liable to death. Indeed, even by the divine law itself (Exod. XXI, 13), if someone unintentionally causes death, they receive the hope of impunity, the opportunity for refuge, so that they may escape. Therefore, let this be said about what seems to be proper evil. For truly, only those things are bad which entangle the mind with guilt and bind the conscience. However, no wise person would call poverty, low birth, illness, or death bad, nor include them in the category of evils; because they do not have contrary qualities to the greatest goods, some of which seem to happen to us by nature, and others by convenience.

32. This digression did not proceed in vain for us; so that we might prove that darkness and abyss are simply to be understood. For darkness was from the overshadowing of the sky; because every body makes a shadow, by which it overshadows either neighboring or lower things, especially those that it seems to cover and enclose. But the sky itself includes it, because the sky extends like a vault, as we have shown above. Therefore, the substance that was dark was not primary: but darkness, like a shadow, followed the body of the world, the mist of darkness. And so, at the moment of divine instruction, the world, rising up, enclosed itself in shadow; just as if someone were to suddenly block off a place in the middle of a field, which is illuminated by the midday sun, and cover it with thick branches and leaves, would not the splendor of that place appear brighter from the outside, while inside it becomes darker with the terrifying scene of the enclosed depths? Or from where did they call a cave, enclosed on all sides, a place of this kind, if not because it bristles with blackness and is overwhelmed by darkness? Therefore, these darknesses were over the depths of the waters. For the multitude of the abyss and the depth of the waters is called, as the reading of the Gospel teaches (Luke, VIII, 31), where the demons begged the Savior not to command them to go into the abyss. But He who taught that the desires of the demons should not be fulfilled, commanded them to go into the pigs. And the pigs, casting themselves into the pool of waters, so that what the demons refused, they would not escape, but would be deservedly sunk. Therefore, this was the unarranged appearance and shape of the world.

Chapter IX.

Creature of light: it is distinguished and approved by the same from the darkness: and for this reason light is called day, and darkness is called night.

33. And the Spirit, he says, of God was carried above the waters, and God said: Let there be light (Gen., I, 3). The Spirit of God was sent forth with good reason, where divine work was beginning. Let there be light, he says. From where should the voice of God in divine Scripture begin, if not from light? From where should the adornment of the world come, if not from the beginning of light? For it would be in vain, if it were not seen. Indeed, God Himself was in the light, because He dwells in inaccessible light, and He was the true light, which enlightens every person coming into this world: but He wished that light to be made, which could be perceived by bodily eyes. Whoever desires to construct a building worthy of a father's dwelling, before laying the foundations, explores from where to pour in light, and this is the first grace, which, if lacking, the whole house horrifies with its ugly neglect. Light is what adorns the other decorations of the house. Let there be light, he says. The full voice of light does not signify an arrangement of disposition, but shines forth with the effect of its operation. The creator of nature spoke light, and created it. The will of God is speech, the work of God is nature: He created light, He illuminated darkness. And God said, Let there be light, and there was light. He did not say this so that the operation would follow, but with the saying He completed the task. Hence that beautiful saying of David: He spoke and they were made (Ps. 148:5), because the effects fulfilled what was spoken. Therefore, God is the author of light: but the world is the place and cause of darkness. But the good author spoke light in such a way that He opened the world itself with infused light, and adorned its appearance. Therefore, the air suddenly shone brightly, and the darkness trembled at the brightness of the new light. It suppressed them, and as if plunged into the depths, the glow of light suddenly spread throughout the entire world. Beautifully and appropriately, it said: Let there be light. Just as quickly as light illuminates the heavens, the earth, and the seas, and in an instant, without any understanding, the splendor of the rising day reveals itself to the regions, it envelops our sight; so too, its rising had to be quickly explained. Why are we amazed if God spoke light, and light shone on the darkened world, when someone can vomit oil after being submerged in water, revealing things that were hidden by the depths? God said this not so that a sound of speech would come out through vocal organs, nor so that the movement of the tongue would form a heavenly address, and a certain clamor of words would strike this air: but so that He might reveal the recognition of His will through the effect of His operation.


34. And he separated the light from the darkness; and God saw the light that it was good (Gen. I, 4). He spoke and no one heard the sound of His voice; he separated and no one perceived the workings of His operation; he saw and no one gazed upon the intention of His eyes. And he saw, he said, the light that it was good. He did not see what he was ignorant of; he did not approve what he did not know beforehand or had not seen: but it is characteristic of good works that they do not require an external commendation, but their own grace, when they are seen, testifies for them. There is more that is proven by appearance than that which is praised by speech. For it uses its own testimony, not the testimony of others. And if judgment is passed by our eyes, by which both the beauty of charm and the measure of things are comprehended: how much more does God see all that He approves, and approves all that He sees, as it is written, 'The eyes of the Lord are upon the righteous' (Ps. 33:16)? The nature of light is such that it is not in number, not in measure, not in weight, like other things, but all its grace is in appearance. Therefore, in its own language, it expresses the nature of light, which pleases by being seen, since it itself supplies the duty of seeing. And not unjustly could it find for itself a preacher, from whom it rightly receives its first praise; since it has made it so that even the other parts of the world are worthy of praise. Therefore, God saw the light, and He illuminated it with His countenance, and He saw that it is good. It is not a partial judgment of God, but a general one. Therefore, it is proven by the grace of light not only in splendor, but in every usefulness. And so discretion is made between light and darkness; just as the nature of light and darkness is separate, nothing appears within itself to be confused.

And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night (Gen. I, 5); so that by its very name he might distinguish day from night. We observe, therefore, that the dawn of light seems to open before the sun the day; for the beginnings of the day close the end of the night, and the boundary of time and the boundary of states seem to be prescribed for the night and the day. The sun illuminates the day, light creates it. Often the sky is covered with clouds, so that the sun may be covered, and no ray of it may appear; but the light still shows the day, and conceals the darkness.

Chapter X.

Contrary to what might seem to some, the night is considered to come before the day. Why is one day called 'prior' rather than 'first'; and why does it end at the conclusion of morning?

36. And it was evening, and it was morning, one day (Gen. I, 5). Some ask why the Scripture mentions evening first and then morning, lest it appear to signify night before day. They do not notice at first that it mentioned day by saying: And God called the light day, and the darkness he called night; then that evening is the end of the day, and morning is the end of the night. Therefore, in order to give the prerogative and primacy of the birth of the day, it indicated the end of the day first, after the following night, and then it added the end of the night afterwards. However, the Scripture could not prefer the night of the day until the end, so that it enclosed the times of both day and night, claiming the name of day with primary authority. And we prove by frequent examples that it is the custom of Scripture to assign the name to the more important one. For indeed Jacob said, 'The days of my life, few and evil' (Gen. 47:9). And again, 'All the days of my life.' And David stated, 'The days of our years' (Ps. 89:10); he did not say 'and nights.' Wherefore we observe that those things which are now related in the form of history were at first established by the law of God for the future. The beginning of the day, therefore, is the word of God: let there be light, and there was light. The end of the day is evening. Now the following day succeeds from the end of the night. But the clear intention of God, because He first called the light day, and the darkness He called night.

37. He also very cleverly called one day not the first; for the following second, and third day, and thereafter the rest, he could have called the first: and this seemed to be an order, but he established a law, that only twenty-four hours of daylight and darkness should be defined by name for one day, so that if he were to say: 'The measure of twenty-four hours is the time of one day.' Just as the generation of men is computed, and the generation of women is also understood, because they are connected with the second and superior; so also the days are counted, and the nights are assessed as attached. Just as there is one circle, so there is one day. For many also call one week one day; because it returns to itself as if it were one day, and as if it were recurring seven times within itself. And this circle begins from itself and returns to itself. Therefore, at times, the Scriptures call it one age. For although it uses the term age in other places, it seems to signify more the diversities of public states or affairs rather than define any successions of ages: Because the day of the Lord is great and very glorious (Joel 2:11). And elsewhere, why are you seeking the day of the Lord? (Amos V, 16) And here there is darkness and not light. For it is clear that for those with a guilty conscience and unworthy, that day will be dark, in which innocence will shine, and the guilty mind will be tormented. Moreover, without the interruption of nights and the succession of darkness, Scripture teaches us that that perpetual day will be the future of eternal retribution. (Isaiah LX, 19).

However, beautifully, having both roles to be spoken of in one day, he concluded with the end of the morning, in order to teach that he began the day from light and ended in light. For it is not complete day time, unless night has been fulfilled. Therefore, let us always walk as if in the day, and let us cast off the works of darkness. For we know that night is given for the rest of the body, not for the pursuit of any task or work, which is passed in sleep and oblivion. Let there not be among us revelry, drunkenness, debauchery. Let us not say: Darkness and walls cover us, and who knows if the Most High will see? But let there be among us a love of light and a care for honesty, so that as if walking in daylight, we may desire our works to shine before God, to whom be honor, praise, glory, power, with our Lord Jesus Christ, and with the Holy Spirit from eternity, and now and forever, and for all ages, Amen.

Book Two. Of the Work of the Second Day.

Chapter I. (Sermo III.)

After the works of the first day were strictly examined and those who claimed that eternal matter was added to the world were rejected, he proceeds to the second day: and in the creation of things, he teaches that we should consider not the possibility of nature, but the power of God.


First, or rather one, let the prerogative of prophetic discourse remain, which we were able to complete; in which we have come to know the heaven created, the earth made, the abundance of waters, the surrounding air, the separation of light and darkness by the operation of Almighty God, and of the Lord Jesus Christ, and also of the Holy Spirit. So who would not marvel at the fact that a world with dissimilar parts rises up into one body, and by an indissoluble law of harmony and charity, they come together in society and connection, though they are so distant by nature, as if they are woven together by an indivisible bond of unity and peace? But who, seeing this, would question the possibility of reason with a weak mind? All these things, by the divine power, incomprehensible to human minds and indescribable by our words, have been connected by the authority of His will.

Therefore, God made the sky and the earth, and He commanded them to exist as if He were their creator, not as if He were inventing figures, but as if He were an operator of nature. For how do the operative power of the impassible God and the nature of the passible matter agree with each other, as if one needed the other, borrowing from it? For if matter is uncreated, therefore it seems that the power of creating matter was lacking in God, and the things subservient to operation were borrowed from it. But if truly unformed, it is truly amazing that it could not confer eternal matter to God, which did not receive its substance from the creator, but possessed it without time. Therefore, the creator found more than he conferred. He found matter in which he could work: but he conferred form, which would bring beauty to the things he found. Hence, he should be distinguished from the others as one day and not to be compared with the others as the first day, on which the foundations of all things were laid and the causes began to exist, by which the substance of this world and all visible creatures is supported. Why the marvelous works of the second day should come forth to us, the greatness of which is not according to the ability of our discourse, but according to the truth of the writer, to be referred to the praise of the Creator.

Therefore, I ask you to naturally value what we say probably, and to think diligently with a simple mind and careful intelligence, not according to philosophical traditions and the empty persuasion of collecting plausible arguments, but according to the rule of truth, which is expressed in the oracles of divine speech and is infused into the hearts of the faithful through contemplation of such great majesty, for it is written: Confirm me in your words. The unjust exercises were narrated to me, but not as your law, O Lord: all your precepts are truth (Psalm 128:28, 85 and 86). Therefore, let us consider not according to the natures of the elements, but according to Christ, who did everything he desired, overflowing with the fullness of his divinity, let us consider what has been done, and let us inquire about the possibility of nature. For when he healed the lepers in the Gospel, he did not restore sight to the blind, but the people who were present and witnessed those things recognized the order of medicine: but marveling at the power of the Lord, they gave praise to God, as it is written (Luke 18:43). Moses did not stretch out his hand to divide the Red Sea according to the numbers of the Egyptians and the movements of the stars, but he obeyed the divine command of power. Therefore he himself says: Your right hand, O Lord, is glorified in strength; your right hand, O Lord, has shattered the enemy. (Exodus 15:6) So, holy people, lift up your mind and focus your whole being on that. God does not see as man sees; God looks into the heart, while man looks at the face. Therefore, a man does not see in the same way as God. You hear that God saw and praised. Therefore, do not assess with your own eyes what has been done, and do not draw conclusions from opinions. Instead, consider what God saw and approved, and do not think that they should be retracted.

Chapter II.

The firmament is created to separate the waters from the waters. The heavens are proved to be more, and the harmony of the celestial spheres is refuted.

And God said: Let there be a firmament amidst the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. And it was so (Gen. I, 6). Listen to the words of God, He says 'Let it be.' It is a command, not an estimation. It commands nature, it does not obey possibility, it does not gather measurements, it does not weigh. His will is the measure of all things. His word is the purpose of the work: 'Let there be a firmament amidst the waters.' Everything that God establishes is firm. And He introduced a rather beautiful preface: Let there be a firmament, before He placed it amidst the water; so that you might believe that the firmament was made by the command of God, before you doubted the nature of the water pouring forth. If you consider the nature of the elements, how is the firmament solidified among the waters? They flow, it is restrained: they run, it remains. And He said, Let it separate the water. But water tends to confuse, not to separate. How does he command what he knows to be contrary according to the ratio of the elements? But since his speech arises from nature, he rightly claims to give the law of nature, who gave the origin.

5. But first let us consider what the firmament is, whether it is the same thing as the heaven mentioned above, or something else, and whether there are two heavens or more. For there are those who say that there is only one heaven and no other can be made, since there was, as they say, enough matter for only one, because when all the matter for the upper heaven was used up, there was nothing left to build the second or third heaven. But others assert that there are innumerable heavens and worlds, which their own people mock. For indeed, it is not greater for us to fight against them than against their own, who contend by geometric numbers and necessities to prove that there cannot be another heaven, nor can nature endure to be second or third, nor the power of the operator suitable to make many heavens. And who would not mock this skilful rhetoric of theirs, when, while they do not deny that many things of the same kind can be made by men from one and the same cause, they doubt about the creator of all, whether he could have made many heavens, concerning whom it is written, 'But the Lord made the heavens' (Psalm 95:5). And elsewhere: He has done whatever he has desired (Ps. CXIII, 3). For what is difficult for him, for whom to desire is to have already done? Therefore, their reasoning of impossibility flows away when they discuss about God, to whom it is truly said: For nothing is impossible for you.

Therefore, we cannot deny that we are not only in the second heaven, but also in the third heaven, as the Apostle confirms by testifying that he was caught up to the third heaven (2 Corinthians 12:2). David also established the heavens of heavens in praise of the Lord (Psalm 148). Following his example, philosophers introduced the harmonious motion of five planets, the sun, and the moon, describing how all things are connected by their orbits or rather globes that are thought to rotate backwards and contrary to the motion of the rest. And by this impulse and motion of these spheres, a sweet and full sound of artistry and pleasing modulation is produced, as the divided air, with its artful motion and the tempering of high and low notes, creates harmonies so varied and evenly balanced that it surpasses the sweetness of any musical composition.


If you seek and expect proof of this matter to be proven to us by sense and hearing, there is hesitation. For if they were true, how would the celestial sphere, which is said to have the courses of the fixed stars attached to it and that are constantly revolving with great motion, have a more rapid revolution and produce a sharper sound, while the lunar sphere, on the other hand, which is the heaviest, would not be heard by us, when we are accustomed to hearing lighter sounds? Therefore, if we demand proof of the truth of this discussion by means of our testimony and the function of hearing, they report that our ears have become deaf and our sense of hearing has become dull because of that customary sound that we have had since the beginning of our generation. And they bring forward an example, namely that the Nile, the greatest of rivers, in that very place where it hurls itself down from the highest mountains in that waterfall, blocks the ears of the people living nearby with the magnitude of its roar, so that they are said to lack the gift of hearing. But the truth easily refutes these things itself. For if we were to hear the thunder generated by the collision of clouds, the movements of such great orbs, which are certainly estimated to move with a larger motion, would they not also produce louder sounds? Moreover, they add that for this reason this sound does not reach the lands, so that captivated humans, through its sweetness and charm, which that fastest movement of the heavens has produced, from the eastern regions all the way to the west, would abandon their own affairs and tasks, and everything would remain idle here, by some departure of the human mind from earthly sounds to celestial ones. But let us leave those things that are foreign to our study and to the sequence of divine reading to those who are outside: let us adhere to the guidance of the heavenly Scriptures.

Chapter III.

The firmament is not the same as the sky: it is falsely denied that true waters reside above it, and this is shown by Scripture, examples, and multiple reasons; those who deny that heat is inherent in the sun are refuted.

Our purpose, therefore, is because God said: 'Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.' And from this, it is discussed whether this firmament is called what was already made, as it is written: 'In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.' It is not overlooked that some before us have understood it this way, because the Scripture expresses the heaven, which was created and formed by God, as the work and creation, while here the exposition of the work is spread out, and the quality of the operation is set forth by the very nature of the things that come together. But it moves us, because another name is signified, and a more solid appearance, and a cause is discerned, and the person of the one cooperating is added. For thus it is written: And God separated between the waters that were under the firmament, and the waters that were above the firmament (Gen. I, 7).

9. And first, they want to destroy that which is unusual and impressed upon our minds by frequent reading of the Scriptures, namely, that water cannot be above the heavens, saying that the round orb of the heavens, with the earth in the middle, would not allow water to remain in it and stay still, as it is necessary to flow and fall downward from higher to lower places. For how can water, as they say, remain above the orb, when the orb itself is rotating? This is that subtlety of dialectic. Give me a place where I can respond to you. But if it is not given, no word is returned. They ask for the concession that the axis of the heavens can be twisted by rapid motion, but the earth itself is immovable; so they argue that it is not possible for the waters to be above the heavens, because by rotating all of them the axis would spill them out. As if I were to indeed grant them what they request, and according to their opinions I were to respond to them, they could deny that in that altitude and depth there is both length and width, which no one can comprehend except the one who is filled with the fullness of God, as the Apostle says (Ephesians 3:18-19). For who can easily be an evaluator of divine work? Therefore, there is expansiveness in the very height of the sky. There are also, as we will speak about things we can know, many buildings that are round on the outside and square on the inside, and square on the outside and round on the inside, in which the upper parts are flat, in which water tends to stagnate. However, we say these things in order to point out that their opinions can be constrained by more plausible opinions, and that they should stop measuring the work of God solely by contemplation of human operation and our own capacity.


10. However, we follow the series and order of the Scriptures, and we value the work through contemplation of the author, and we seek what has been said, and who said it, and to whom it was said: 'Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters.' I hear that the firmament was created by a command by which the water was divided, and the lower waters were separated from the higher. What could be clearer? He who commanded the water to be divided by inserting the firmament in the middle provided a way for it to remain divided and separate. The power of God is the nature's virtue, and the substance of eternity as long as He wishes it to remain, as it is written: He has established it forever and ever, He has given a command, and it will not pass away (Psalm 148:6). And so you may know, that about these waters He has said this, which you deny can be in the higher heavens, listen to what is written above: Praise Him, you heavens of heavens, and you waters that are above the heavens, let them praise the name of the Lord (Psalm 148:4, 5). Has he not spoken to you as if he were opposing: Because he spoke and they were made; he commanded and they were created: he established them forever and ever, he set a law and it shall not pass away (ibid. 5). Does not the author seem to be suitable to you, who would give his law to his work? It is God who speaks, venerable by nature, in immeasurable greatness, immense in rewards, incomprehensible in works, whose height of wisdom can be investigated by someone easily? He speaks to the Son, that is, he speaks to his arm, he speaks to his power, he speaks to his wisdom, he speaks to his justice. And the Son acts as if powerful, acts as if the power of God, acts as if the wisdom of God, acts as if the divine justice. When you hear these things, why are you amazed if by the operation of such great majesty the wave could be suspended above the firmament of the sky?

11. From others derive this: from those things which the eyes of men have seen, consider how the water divided itself for the passage of the Jews, if you seek reason. This is not the usual nature, that water should separate itself from water, and that in the depths the mixtures of waters should be divided by the middle of the earth. For the waves froze, and in the appearance of the sky they curbed their course with an unusual end. Wasn't it possible for the Hebrew people to be liberated in another way as well? But he wanted to show you, in order that also by that spectacle you might estimate that those things which you did not see are to be believed. Jordan also, with its river winding back, returns to its source. It is considered impossible for water to stand still as it flows; to return again to its upper reaches without any barrier is also considered impossible. But what is impossible for someone who has given the power to the weak to say: 'I can do all things in him who strengthens me' (Philippians 4:13). Let them explain how the air is gathered into a cloud, whether rain is generated from the clouds, or whether it is collected in the bosom of the clouds. We often see clouds coming forth from the mountains. I wonder whether the water rises from the earth or descends from what is above the heavens in copious rainfall. If it rises, it is certainly against nature for it to ascend to higher regions which are heavier and be carried by air, since air is more subtle. Or if water is carried by the movement of the whole rotating sphere, just as it is carried by the lowest sphere, it is also dispersed by the highest sphere. If it is poured out as they claim, it certainly does not cease to be carried away: for if the axis of the sky is always moving, then water is always being drawn up. If it descends; therefore it always remains above the heavens from where it descends. Then what is the obstacle if they confess that water was suspended above the heavens? For by what word do they say that the earth is suspended in the middle and remains immobile, since it is undoubtedly heavier than water; by this reasoning they can say that the water does not fall precipitously by the rotation of that heavenly sphere which is above the heavens. For just as the earth is suspended by empty space, or remains immobile with weight balanced on all sides; so too is water either weighed down by heavier or equal weights to the earth. And so the sea does not easily overflow the land, unless it is commanded to depart.

12. Then when they say that the celestial sphere, shining with burning stars, revolves on its own, didn't divine providence necessarily foresee that water would flow within and overflow beyond the celestial sphere to temper the fiery heat of the axis? Therefore, because fire overflows and burns, water also overflowed on the Earth so that the rising heat from the sun and the shining of the stars would not consume it, and so that the tender beginnings of things would not be harmed by the unusual vapor. How many springs, rivers, and lakes irrigate the lands, because a certain internal fire vaporizes them? For from where would trees sprout, or crops burst forth, or newly grown crops be cooked; unless that internal fire also animates them? It is also frequently expelled from rocks, and often leaps out from the wood itself while being cut. Therefore, just as fire is a necessary creature, so that it may remain orderly and organized, and the kindness of the heavens tempers the severity of the waters; so too the excess of waters is not superfluous, as one would consume the other, because unless there is a suitable measure of both, just as fire dries out water, so too water extinguishes fire. And so He examined all things with weight and measure; for the rainfall has been counted for Him, as we read in the Book of Job. Knowing that either an easy lack of things or a resolution of the universe would occur if one were exceeded by the other, He tempered the expenses of both so that neither fire would consume too much nor water would overflow, but the decrease of both would be moderate, which would both remove the excess and preserve the necessary. Therefore, when such great flows of rivers burst forth from the lands, the Nile, stagnating Egypt with its overflowing river, the Danube, cutting across the lands of barbarians and Romans until it reaches the Black Sea, the Rhine, directing its course from the Alps to the depths of the Ocean, a remarkable wall of the Roman Empire against wild peoples, the Po faithful in bringing maritime supplies to Italy, the Rhone, flowing rapidly and splitting the straits of the Tyrrhenian Sea, where there is said to be no small danger for sailors as the waves of the sea and the currents of the river contend with each other, and likewise the Phasis, flowing from the Caucasus mountains in the northern part and rushing into the Black Sea with several others, it is extensive to enumerate the names of each of these rivers that either flow into our sea or discharge into the Ocean; therefore, even though there is such abundance of water, the land of the southern region is often parched by heat and exhausted by the heat, and the miserable farmers, having expended their labor, frequently lack vital relief in the form of drinking water, as the wells dry up and the stream runs dry. And there will indeed come a time when he will say to the abyss: you will be deserted, and I will dry up all the rivers, as he foretold through Isaiah (Isaiah 44:27). But even before that day comes, by divine decree, the nature of the elements themselves frequently determines the world to be shaken either by floods or by excessive heat and drought.

13. Therefore, do not imagine an incredible number of waters, but consider the power of heat, and you will not be incredulous. Fire absorbs a great deal: this should be evident to us from the fact that doctors attach certain vessels to the body, which are narrow at the mouth, wider at the top, concave inside, and shine with the gentle light of a lamp, so that this heat may draw all moisture into itself. Therefore, who would doubt that the fiery ether, burning with great heat and vapor, would ignite and consume everything, unless it were restrained by a certain law of its creator, so that neither rivers, nor lakes, nor the very seas could extinguish its power? And therefore, descending from above with a certain force, it is often disrupted into such heavy rainfalls that rivers and lakes are suddenly filled, and even the seas overflow. Hence, we frequently see the sun wet and dripping. In this, it provides clear evidence that it has taken water as nourishment for its temperature.

However, they have such a strong desire to attack the truth that they deny that the sun itself is of warm nature; because it is white, not red, or ruddy in the appearance of fire. And therefore they say that it is not of fiery nature, and if it has any heat, they claim that it occurs from excessive motion of transformation. They think that this should be said so that it does not seem to consume moisture: because the heat by which moisture is either diminished or often exhausted, does not have a natural quality. But they accomplish nothing when they construct such things; for it makes no difference whether one has heat from natural causes or from some accident or other, since every fire consumes a supply of moisture or something of that sort, such as flames are accustomed to devour. For whether one collects fire from wood not at all charred, but simply pounded together, and takes the flame up in leaves, the flame still burns, just as though you were lighting a torch from a fire; or whether you light a lamp from the flame of another lamp, the kind and nature of the light are the same as though the light had originated, not from a natural fire, but as the result of an accident. Hence, at least from here they contemplate the heat of the sun, by which God has established different places and times for its course; so that if it always stayed in the same places, it would be consumed by daily vapor. They say that the sea itself has salty and bitter water because the water that flows into the sea from the rivers is evaporated by the heat, and only as much vapor is consumed daily as is brought in from the various courses of the rivers. This is said to happen through a certain judgment of the sun, which takes for itself what is pure and light, and leaves behind what is heavy and earthly: from which remains that salty and dry thing, which is unpleasant and tasteless for drinking.

Chapter IV.

Coelum, a common noun; but specifically, firmament: and from where both words are derived. Hence, some meanings of coelum; and finally, the moral interpretation of both the heavens and the firmament, as well as the waters.


15. But let us return to the point. Let a firmament be made in the midst of the waters. Let it not move, as I have already said, because it says above 'heaven' here it says 'firmament', for David also says: 'The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament proclaims the work of his hands' (Ps. 19:1), that is, the work of the world, when it is seen, praises its creator. For through the things that are seen, his invisible majesty is recognized. And it seems to me that the common name for the heavens is 'heavens' because Scripture testifies to many heavens, but the specific name is 'firmament'. Indeed, here it is said: 'And God called the firmament Heaven' (Gen. I, 8), so that it seems to have spoken generally above, that the heaven was made in the beginning, so as to comprehend the entire structure of celestial creatures. But here, the specific solidity of this outer firmament, which is called the firmament of heaven, as we read in the prophetic hymn: 'Blessed are you in the firmament of heaven' (Dan. III, 36). For heaven, which is called οὐρανὸς in Greek, is called 'caelatum' in Latin because it has the impressed lights of the stars as signs, as if it were engraved: just as we call silver that shines with prominent signs 'caelatum'. But οὐρανὸς is so called from the fact that it can be seen. Therefore, the land, which is darker, is called the sky because it is clear, as if visible. Hence, I believe this saying: 'The birds of the sky always see the face of my Father, who is in the heavens' (Gen. I, 20). And: 'Birds fly around the firmament of the sky,' because the powers that exist in that visible place can observe all these things and have them within their sights.

16. Finally, heaven is said to be closed in the times of Elijah when Ahab and Jezebel ruled with treachery, and the people served in royal sacrilege, because no one lifted their eyes to heaven, no one honored its creator, but they worshipped wood and stones. How do we gather this? Because even in the curses of the people of Israel, God said: 'The sky above you shall be bronze, and the earth beneath you iron' (Leviticus 26:19), when the people of Judah paid the price for their treachery and were punished by the inclemency of the heavens and the infertility of the earth; for it is from heaven that fertility comes. Lastly, Moses bestowed blessings upon Joseph from the boundaries of the sky and the dew of the depths of the fountains downward, and according to the hour from the course of the sun, and from the suitable months, and from the summit of the eternal mountains and hills, giving, by heavenly moderation, nourishment to the fertility of the earth. Therefore, the sky is like iron, which does not release any moisture when the rain is not broken by any clouds. The sky is also made of iron and is sub-dusky, compressed and cloudy with a rusty color, when the earth is tightened by the cold, then moisture seems to be suspended over our head, and it threatens to descend momentarily. Usually, even the waters that freeze in snow are solidified by the freezing gusts of winds, and when the air is ruptured, the snow is poured forth. For this firmament cannot be ruptured without some kind of loud noise. Therefore, it is also called firmament because it is not weak or slack. Hence, the Scripture says about thunder, which, having been conceived within the bosom of the clouds with a strong spirit, is about to burst forth violently, that it strengthens the thunder (Amos 4:13). Therefore, firmament is called firmament, or that which is strengthened by divine power, as Scripture teaches us, saying: Praise Him in the firmament of His power (Ps. 150:1).

17. And it does not pass over to recount some heavens of heavens to intelligible virtues, the firmament to operative ones. And therefore to praise the heavens, or to narrate the glory of God, to announce the firmament: but not as spiritual, but as the works of the world narrate, as we have said above. Others also interpret the purifying virtues as the waters that are above the heavens. We understand these as fitting for the discourse: yet it does not seem foreign and absurd to us if we understand the true waters for that reason which we mentioned. For both dew and frost and cold and heat, according to the prophetic hymn, bless the Lord, and the earth also blesses. And we do not refer these to intelligible natures, but to the truth. Even the dragons praise the Lord; for when their nature and appearance are seen, it neither lacks beauty nor shows the presence of reason.

Chapter V.

The perfect union of the Father and the Son in their works. To see in God the same as to approve. To praise the work while the parts are not yet complete is proper to God.

18. And God saw that it was good (Gen. I, 3). The Son does what the Father wants: the Father praises what the Son does. Nothing is found in Him that deviates from nature, whose work does not deviate from the will of the Father. He saw, indeed, not with bodily eyes, but he determined that it was fitting for the fullness of grace, so that his judgment might be known to me; for we are accustomed also to discuss those things which are divine. And what wonder if they can retract from the work, who ask questions about the generation of the very operator Himself? They call Him into judgment, they try to assert that He is unequal and degenerate. Thus the law: And God said, and God did. The Father and the Son are honored with the same name of majesty. And God saw that it was good. He spoke as if knowing everything the Father willed, and He saw as if knowing everything the Son would do, holding knowledge and acting in partnership.

He saw that it was good. He did not know it as something unknown, but he approved of what pleased him. It was not as if a work unknown pleased him; for neither was the Father unknown who was pleased in the Son, as it is written: This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased (Matt. III, 17) . But the Son always knows the will of the Father, and the Father of the Son, and the Son always hears the Father, and the Father the Son, through the unity of nature, will, and substance. Finally, the Son testifies to this in his Gospel, saying to the Father: I knew that you always hear me (John 11:42). For the Son is the image of the invisible God. He expresses all things of the Father as an image, he illuminates all things of his as the splendor of glory, and he reveals them to us. The Son sees the work of the Father, just as the Father sees the work of the Son; as the Lord himself declared: The Son can do nothing by himself, unless he sees the Father doing it (John 5:19). Therefore he sees the Father who is doing, and he sees through the secret of the invisible nature, and he hears likewise. Finally he says: As I hear, I judge, and my judgment is true; because I am not alone, but I and the Father who sent me (John 8:16).

20. This is mystical, that is moral. It has seen for me, it has approved for me. What God has approved, may you not speak reprehensibly of; for what God has cleansed, may you not call common (Acts X, 15), you remembered it is written for you; therefore, let no one blaspheme the good of God. If the firmament is good, how much more so is its creator good; even if the Arians refuse, let the Eunomians cry out, the fruit of a degenerate root is worse.

21. God saw, He said, that it was good. Artists usually create individual parts first and then skillfully connect them together: those who carve human faces or shape bodies from marble, sculpt with bronze, or mold from wax, do not know how the individual parts will fit together or what beauty the future connection will bring; and therefore they either dare not praise or praise only in part. But God, as the judge of the whole, foreseeing what is to come, praises as if already perfect those things that are still at the beginning of the first work, surpassing the knowledge of the end of the work. It is not surprising, therefore, that someone who sees the perfection of things, not in the completion of the work, but in the predestination of their own will, praises each part as if it were suitable for the future: praises the fullness of the individual parts put together with beauty. For that is true beauty, both to have what is fitting in each individual part and also in the whole, so that grace may be praised in each part and the fullness of a suitable form may be praised in all.

22. But now, even the second day is coming to a close for us, so that while we are constructing the framework of the firmament, we do not make those who listen weaker with our long-windedness; while the conversation is extended into the night, which is still without the light of the moon and the stars, for the luminaries of the heavens have not yet been created, it may bring darkness to those who are returning: at the same time, let their bodies be taken care of with food and drink, so that while their minds are feasting, the frailty of the flesh does not complain about the fasting of the night as well.

Book Three. Of the Work of the Third Day.

Chapter I. (Sermo IV.)

When the waters obey divine command, it is disgraceful for humans not to obey it. The gathering of waters in the Church symbolizes this. How splendid a spectacle the Church presents; and how it is founded upon the rivers.


On this third day, let us be born in our discourse, which arose in the reading. A glorious day, which set the land free from shipwreck, as God said: 'Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place' (Gen. I, 9). Let us begin with a preface to this. It is said, 'Let the water be gathered,' and it was gathered; and it is often said, 'Let the people be gathered,' and they are not gathered. It is no small shame to the elements, which are insensible, to obey the command of God, and for men not to obey, to whom the sense has been given by the same author. And perhaps shame has prompted you to gather more today, so that on the day when the water gathered into one assembly, the people would not seem to be gathered in the Church of the Lord.

2. Nor do we have this example of obedient water only; for it is also written elsewhere: The waters saw you, O God, the waters saw you and trembled (Ps. 76:17). For it seems unlikely that this is not said about the waters, since the same prophet also says elsewhere: The sea saw and fled, the Jordan turned back (Ps. 114:3). For who is ignorant of the truly amazing fact, that the sea fled before the crossing of the Hebrews, when the waves were divided; the people passed over with dusty footprints, believing the sea to have been destroyed and the waves to have fled? Finally the Egyptian believed this, and entered: but the wave returned to him, which had fled. So the water knows how to gather, and to fear, and to flee, when God commands. Let us imitate this water and know the one gathering of the Lord, the one Church.

3. Once, water was gathered here from every valley, from every swamp, from every lake. The valley is heresy, the valley is paganism; for God is of the mountains, not of the valleys. In the Church there is rejoicing, in heresy and paganism there is weeping and mournfulness. Thus it says: He has assigned weeping in the valley (Ps. LXXXIII, 6-7). Therefore, the Catholic people are gathered from every valley. Now there are not many congregations, but there is one congregation, one Church. And it is said here: let water be gathered from every valley, and a spiritual gathering was made, and one people was formed; the Church is filled with heretics and pagans. The valley is a stage, the valley is a circus, where the deceitful horse runs for salvation, where base and contemptible contention occurs, where there is a hideous ugliness of disputes. Therefore, from those who were accustomed to adhere to the circus, the faith of the Church grew, and the daily assembly increased.

4. The marsh is luxury, the marsh is intemperance, the marsh is incontinence: in which are swirling the desires, the murmurs of beasts, the hiding places of passions: where all who fall in are engulfed and do not emerge: where footprints slip, where the steps of individuals float: where coots pollute themselves while bathing: where mournful cooing of doves comes from above: where the lazy turtle remains stuck in the muddy whirlpool; finally, the boar in the marsh, the deer at the springs. And so, from all the swamp, where the frogs were singing an old complaint, faith was gathered, purity of heart was gathered, and simplicity of mind.

5. The water is gathered from every lake and every well, so that no one may dig a well for his brother, into which he himself falls; but let everyone love one another, let everyone support one another, and, like one body, let the different members sustain each other: not by deadly songs and the entertainments of actors that soften the mind for love, but by the harmony of the Church and the melodious voice of the people praising God and the pious life pleasing to him: not by purple spectacles and precious curtains for the sake of pleasure, but by beholding this most beautiful structure of the world, this connection of distant elements, the vaulted sky as a accommodation, covering those who dwell in this world, the earth given for work, the spread out air, the enclosed seas; this people is the instrument of divine operation, in which the melody of the divine oracle resounds and the Spirit of God works within; this temple is the sanctuary of the Trinity, the dwelling place of holiness, the holy Church, in which the heavenly curtains shine, of which it is said: Enlarge the place of your tents, and let the curtains of your habitations be stretched out; spare not: lengthen your cords, and strengthen your stakes; still extend them to the right hand and to the left, and your descendants shall possess the nations and inhabit the desolate cities (Isaiah 54:2-3). Therefore, he has curtains, which lift up a good life, cover sins, and overshadow fault.

This is the Church which is established upon the seas, and prepared upon the rivers. For it is confirmed and prepared above you, who like pure rivers flow into it from the fountain of the world, of which it is said: The rivers have lifted up, O Lord, the rivers have lifted up their voices from the voice of many waters (Psalm 92:3). And it adds: Wonderful are the elevations of the sea, wonderful is the Lord on high (ibid. 4). Good are the rivers; for you have drawn from that perpetual and full fountain, from which you flow, of whom it is said to you: Whoever believes in me, as the Scripture says, rivers of living water will flow from his belly (John 7:38). But he was speaking about the Spirit, whom those who believed in him were about to receive; for as yet the Spirit had not been given, because Jesus was not yet glorified. But now, as if you were turning back with me to the beginning of the Jordan's streams.

Chapter II.

The land, previously invisible, appeared when waters were poured over it and converged into the same place. The divine power bestowed stability and later fluidity to the waters, as is demonstrated by various examples. How remarkable that all waters could be contained in one place and that God could assign them their boundaries.


7. 'Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together into one place,' he said, 'and let the dry land appear.' And it was so. Perhaps someone may not have believed our previous words, in which we discussed that the earth was invisible because it was covered by waters and could not be seen with physical eyes. For the prophet referred this to himself, that is, to our condition, not to the majesty of divine nature, which certainly sees all things. But, in order that you may be aware that we undertook this task of treating (the subject) at your suggestion, not to make a display of our skill, but for the sake of your instruction, we testify that after the gathering together of the waters which were upon the earth, and after their separation into the seas, the dry land appeared. Let them cease, therefore, to raise objections to us on the ground of dialectical discussions, saying: How is it possible for the invisible earth, which has naturally inherent in it, in every part of it, both form and color, to be subject to the sight, when every color is subject to sight? The voice of God proclaims: Let the water be gathered together and let the dry land appear. And again Scripture says: The water was gathered together into one place, and the dry land appeared. Why was it necessary to repeat, unless the prophet wished to anticipate questions? Does it not seem to say: I did not say invisible according to nature, but according to the superabundance of waters? Finally, it added that the dry land appeared, the veil being removed, which was not seen before.

Moreover, they also raise other questions, saying: If there was water in different congregations, how is it that if those congregations were in higher places, the water did not flow down to the place to which it was directed after the command of the Lord? For the nature of water naturally flows downward. But if those congregations were in lower places, how does the water ascend to higher places against its nature? Therefore, either the natural course did not obey the command, or it could not advance against its nature by the command. I will easily answer this question, if I myself answer it before the commandment of the Lord that this was the nature of waters, that they would glide, that they would flow. For this does not have the use of the other elements, but a special and proper use: not from a certain order, but rather from the will and operation of the highest God. They hear what God has commanded. But the voice of God is the efficient cause of nature. The effect of operation fulfills that voice. The water began to glide and to gather into one congregation, which before was spread throughout the earth and clung to many receptacles. I haven't read his course before, I haven't learned his movement before, neither my eyes have seen, nor my ears have heard. The water stood in different places, moved at the voice of God. Does it not seem that this voice of God made such a nature for it? The creature followed the command, and made use of the law. For the law of the original constitution left a form for the future. Finally, he made the day and the night once: from that time, the succession of both continues, and the continuous renewal. Also the water is commanded to run together: from there it runs, springs flow into rivers, rivers flow into the seas, lakes are carried into the oceans; the water itself goes before, presses, and follows. There is one channel, one body. And although there is a different height, nevertheless the equality of its back is undivided. Therefore, I think it is called a sea because its surface is level.

9. I replied in accordance with their proposal; let them now respond to me, if they have never seen springs gushing forth from the depths, water rising from the ground. Who causes it? From where does it burst forth? How does it not run dry? How is it that the lowest parts of the sun emit waves? These are secrets of hidden nature. Moreover, who is unaware that, when descending rapidly to the lowest points, it rises up to higher places, and rises even to the summit of a mountain; and often, when directed through channels by the hand of an artist, it rises as much as it has descended? Therefore, if it is carried by its own impetus, or is led and lifted up against its own nature by the skill of the craftsman, are you amazed that by the divine operation of precept something has been added for its use, which was not present in its use before? Now let them tell me how, as it is written, he gathered the waters of the sea into a vessel (Ps. 32:7), how he brought forth water from a rock? He who was able to bring forth water from a rock that was not, was he not able to bring forth water that was? He struck the rock, and the waters flowed out (Ps. 77:20), exclaims David, and the torrents overflowed. And elsewhere: The waters will stand on the mountains (Ps. 104:6). You have in the Gospel (Matt. 8:24 et seq.) that when there was a severe storm and a great disturbance in the sea, so that the apostles were in danger of shipwreck and trembled, they woke up the sleeping Lord Jesus in the stern and He rose up and commanded the wind and the sea, and the storm was calmed, the tranquility was restored. Who was able to calm the entire sea with his authority, but was not able to move the waters with his authority? Yet during the flood we have learned that the fountains of the deep burst forth, and that afterwards the Spirit was sent and dried up the water. If they do not want to obey nature, and acknowledge that the use of the elements has been turned into the authority of God, let them at least concede that with the wind sent forth, the waters can flow, as we see every day in the sea, where the waters flow from where the wind has blown. If, at the time of Moses, with a strong south wind, the sea was dried up, in the same way the congregation of waters could not be dried up, and water could flow into the sea, which was later separated from the deep (2 Kings, 6:6)? But let them learn that nature can be changed, when water flowed from a rock, and iron floated on water, which certainly Elisha deserved to do by praying, not by commanding. Therefore, if Elisha lifted up iron against nature, could Christ not move the waters? But he moved, who was able to say: Lazarus, come forth (John 11:23), and he raised the dead; for God does what he commands. Therefore, take it as an equal example when it is said: Let the water be gathered, and it was gathered. But in saying let it be gathered, he not only moved it from its place, but he also established it in a place, so that it would not just flow by, but would remain.

Therefore, it is a greater miracle how all the congregations have flowed into one congregation, and one congregation has not been filled. For even the Scripture establishes this among its wonders, saying: All the rivers go to the sea, and the sea is not filled (Ecclesiastes 1:7). Therefore, both are by the command of God, that the water flows and does not overflow. Therefore, the seas are bounded by a set limit, so that they do not overflow the land and hinder the cultivation of the fields, depriving them of the gift of earthly fertility. Therefore, let them understand that these are divine commandments and the work of heaven. Moreover, the Lord, through a cloud, spoke to Job and, among other things, also about the boundaries of the sea: 'I determined its limits, set bars and doors for it. And I said to it: 'You may come this far, but no farther; here your proud waves will stop' (Job 38:10). Do we not ourselves see the sea frequently restless, so that when its waves rise high like a towering mountain of water, they crash against the shore, dissolve into foam, and, being pushed back by certain barriers of the low-lying sand, return, as it is written: 'Or will you not fear me?' declares the Lord. 'Will you not tremble in my presence? I made the sand a boundary for the sea, an everlasting barrier it cannot cross' (Jeremiah 5:22)? Therefore, the weakest force of all, the power of the sand's dust restrains the violence of the raging sea, and as if directed by heavenly reins, it is called back with a prescribed limit, and the violent movement of the water is broken into itself, and its surging waves are divided into their recessed bays.

11. Moreover, unless the force of the celestial ordinance were to inhibit it, what could prevent the Red Sea from mingling with the Egyptian Sea through the flat plains of Egypt, which are said to lie in the lowest valleys of the plain? Indeed, those who desired to connect these two seas and pour them into each other have taught this. Sesostris the Egyptian, who was older, and Darius the Mede, who desired to bring it into effect with a view to greater power, attempted what had been previously attempted by a native. This fact is evidence that the Indian Ocean is above the Red Sea, in which the Egyptian Sea below it flows. And perhaps so that the sea would not spread more widely, cascading from higher to lower areas, both kings recalled their respective efforts.

Chapter III.

There is only one continuous collection of waters, but different names are given according to the diverse regions. This is how God prepared a place for the waters, which are spread throughout the whole world. Also, it includes lakes and ponds within the same gathering.

12. Now I ask, when he says: 'Let the water be gathered into one place,' how could one gathering receive the waters that are spread throughout lakes, marshes, ponds, rivers, and overflowed in valleys and plains and all the flatter places, flowing from springs and rivers? Or how could one gathering, when even now the seas are different? For we call it the Ocean sea, and the Tyrrhenian, and the Adriatic, and the Indian, and the Egyptian, and the Pontic, and the Propontis, and the Hellespont, and the Black, and the Aegean, and the Ionian, and the Atlantic sea. Many also call the Cretan Sea and the Northern Caspian Sea. Therefore, let us consider the words of Scripture, which have been examined by a balanced scale.

13. 'Let the water be collected,' he says, 'into one collection. The collection of waters is one and continuous, but the bays of the sea are different, as some of the legal writers say (Plat. in Timaeus). For indeed the sea has the most extensive bays, and deservedly in different places there are different names, because the names have adhered to the waters from the names of the regions. But the collection of waters is one, because the continuous waves, from the Indian Sea to the shores of Cadiz, and from there, encompassing the globe, it encloses the Red Sea in the Ocean: and within it the Adriatic and other seas are mixed with the Tyrrhenian, distinguished by names, not by waves.' Where you have it beautifully, because God called the collections of waters seas (Gen. I, 10). So also there is one overall collection, which is called the sea, and many collections which are called seas for regions. Just as there are many lands, such as Africa, Spain, Thrace, Macedonia, Syria, Egypt, Gaul, and Italy, which are called by the names of regions, and there is one land, so also many seas are called by the names of places, and there is one sea, as the prophet says, saying: Yours are the heavens, and yours is the earth, you founded the circle of the earth and its fullness, you created the north wind and the sea (Ps. LXXXVIII, 12). And to Job the Lord himself said: But have the gates of the sea been shut up? (Job 38:8).

14. Now, because we have spoken about a single collection, this question arises: whether, when waters were spread out throughout nearly all the earth and above the earth, in the valleys of fields, hollows of mountains, and the plains of the plains, a single gathering, poured forth from the sea, could have received and drained all those waters, which were stagnating before being poured forth through the entire river. For if everything was covered in this manner, he would not say, the earth was seen, unless he wanted to indicate that it was uncovered in all places. If the flood during the time of Noah covered and hid the mountains, when the separation had already been made between the waters above the heavens and those below the firmament, how much more can it not be doubted that even the tops of the mountains were concealed by that flooding? Therefore, from where was all that excess water derived? What receptacles were able to absorb it, so continuous and interconnected? Much could be said on this matter.

First, because the Creator of all things was able to spread out the spaces of the lands themselves; this some before us, affirming, have established according to their own opinion. I do not omit what He was able to do; I pass over what He did, which I have not learned clearly from the authority of the Scriptures, as it were a secret, lest from here perhaps other questions might be sought by them also. Nevertheless, I assert according to the Scriptures that He was able to spread out lowly places and open fields, just as He Himself says: 'I will walk before you and make mountains plain' (Isaiah 45:2). The force of the water itself could also make deeper things, which had settled, more turbulent: with such a movement of waves and such a surge of a more agitated element, which daily twists the depths of the sea and turns the sands out of the deep. Who then knows to what extent that great and uncharted sea, which encloses Britain raging with waves, establishes itself for sailors and extends into the farther and even inaccessible secrets of the stories themselves? Who then does not gather how much Lucrinus and Avernus in Italy, Tiberias also in Palestine, and that lake which stretches between Palestine and Egypt to the deserts of Arabia, and the various ports of Augustus and Trajan, and the sea poured out through the whole world?

16. But there are also lakes that are not mixed with waves, and stagnant pools that do not mingle with the currents, like Lake Como and Lake Garda, Lake Albano and many others, how is this one gathering of waters? But just as it is said that God made two lights, that is, the sun and the moon, even though there are also the lights of the stars, so too one gathering is said, even though there are many. For those that do not mix are not counted.

Chapter IV.

The particular quality of the earth, when it is called dry, is signified. The properties of the elements, by which they are mutually connected, are discussed; and this is specifically examined with regard to the earth.

17. But, as it seems, since we were talking about the sea, we have strayed a bit; let us return to the point and consider what the Lord says: Let the water be gathered together into one gathering, and let the dry land appear, and let it not be called, earth. Who does not notice the excellent placement of this? For the earth can be mixed with mud, wet with water, whose species does not appear when water is poured over it. But the dry land refers not only to the general nature, but also to the specific kinds of land, so that it may be useful, dry, suitable, and ready for cultivation. At the same time it is considered, lest it appear to be dried up more by the sun than by the command of God, because it became dry before the sun was created. Hence David, distinguishing the sea and the earth, says of the Lord God: For the sea is his, and he made it; and his hands founded the dry (Ps. 94:5). For the expression 'dry' is a description of nature, the appellation 'earth' is a simple designation of a matter which has its own quality. For just as the designation 'animal' signifies a type of being in which there is something proper and excellent, so also 'earth' can be said generally to be either teeming with water or barren and impassable, and without water. Therefore, even those things that are abundant in water have the ability to become dry. For when water is removed, it begins to be dry, as it is written: 'He turned rivers into a desert, springs of water into thirsty ground' (Ps. 107:33), that is, he made dry land from watery soil.

Therefore, the earth has its own specific quality, just as each element does. For air has a humid quality, water has a cold quality, and fire has a hot quality. And this is the main characteristic of each individual element, which we deduce through reason. However, if we want to comprehend sensibly and corporeally, we find them connected and composed; for example, dry and cold earth, cold and humid water, hot and humid air, hot and dry fire; and thus, through these paired qualities, the individual elements mix with one another. Since the earth is of a dry and cold nature, it is connected to water by the affinity of cold nature, and by the aid of heat, because air is moist. Therefore, water seems to embrace the earth and air with two arms, one of coldness and moisture, the other of earth and moist air. Air also, being in the middle between two opposing elements by nature, namely water and fire, reconciles both elements to itself; for it is connected to water by moisture and to fire by heat. Fire, which is also hot and dry in nature, is connected to air through heat, but is replenished with dryness through its association with earth; and in this way, they come together in a certain circuit and harmony of unity. Hence, they are called in Greek στοιχεῖα, which in Latin we call elements, because they come together and harmonize with each other.

Here, however, we have made progress, because Scripture says that God called the dry land, that is, that which is its principal attribute, by the name of 'land'. For the natural property of the land is dryness: this is its special prerogative. Therefore, dryness is the principal attribute. It also possesses coldness, but second to the first attributes. And in order to be moist, it acquires this by its affinity with water. Therefore, it is its own, this is foreign: its own, because it is dry; foreign, because it is moist. Therefore, the author of nature held on to what he first gave, because that is from nature, but this is from a cause. Therefore, the property should be defined from the main things, not from the accidents of the earth, so that our knowledge would be informed according to the prerogative of its quality.

Chapter V.

Some consider that certain things have been added to this place in Scripture. The commendation of the sea is due to its beauty and manifold usefulness, but especially because it embraces the island hermits with its waves, and represents the figure of the ecclesiastical community: which is enclosed by the pious prayer of the author.


20. And God saw that it was good (Gen., I, 10). We do not overlook the fact that some people believe that this verse does not exist in Hebrew or in other interpretations: 'For the waters were gathered together into their respective places, and the dry land appeared; and God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering together of the waters He called Seas.' When God says that it was so, it is sufficient for them as a sign of the celebrated operation. But because in other creatures it has both the definition of command and the repetition of operation as a sign or effect, we do not think it absurd that which is reported to have been added, even if the truth is shown to be available or the authority from other interpreters. For indeed we have found many things not without purpose added and joined to the Hebrew reading by the Seventy men.

Therefore God saw that the sea is good. Although the appearance of this element is beautiful, either when it whitens with rising heaps and peaks of waves, and the white rocks drip with spray, or when it is made crisp by a gentle breeze, and it presents the color of a calm serenity blushing with purple, which is frequently poured forth from afar for those who look on, when it does not strike neighboring shores with violent waves, but as it were embraces them peacefully and greets them with a kiss, what sweet sound, what pleasant roar, what pleasing and harmonious echo! Yet I do not think that the beauty of this creature can be esteemed with the eyes, but rather it corresponds and agrees according to the reason of its operation and the judgment of its maker.


Therefore, the sea is good, first because it necessarily supports the lands with moisture, secretly supplying a certain useful juice through certain veins. The sea is good, like a host of rivers, a source of rain, a channel of alluvium, a means of transportation for distant peoples, a way to remove the dangers of battles, a means to contain barbaric fury, a support in times of need, a refuge in dangers, a source of pleasure, a promoter of health, a connection between separated people, a shortcut in travel, an escape for the toiling, a support for taxes, and a source of sustenance in times of barrenness. From this, rain is transferred to the earth; for water is drawn from the sea by the rays of the sun, and that which is subtle is carried away: then, the higher it is lifted, the more it cools by the shadow of the clouds, and it becomes rain which not only moderates the dryness of the earth but also fertilizes barren fields.

23. Why should I enumerate the islands, which are mostly covered like a necklace, on which those who renounce the enticements of secular intemperance choose to hide from the world with a steadfast commitment to self-restraint, and to divert from the uncertain twists and turns of this life? Therefore, the sea is the secret of temperance, the exercise of self-restraint, the retreat of solemnity, the haven of security, the tranquility of the age, the sobriety of this world, and the incentive of devotion for faithful and devout men, so that they may compete with the gentle sound of the flowing waves in the singing of the psalms, so that the islands may applaud in harmony with the calm waves and the chorus of saints, and so that the hymns of the saints may resound. Where do I find a way to grasp all the beauty of the sea that the operator saw? And what more? What else is that harmony of the waves, if not a certain harmony of the people? Hence the Church is often compared to the beautiful sea, which, at the entrance of the people, sends forth waves through all its gates; then, in the prayer of the whole people, it resounds like the waves receding, with responsories of psalms, the singing of men, women, virgins, and children, echoing like the crashing of waves. For what shall I say, that the water washes away sin, and the holy breath of the Spirit breathes salvation?

May the Lord make those streams of success run for us on a prosperous wood, to safely come to harbor, to not experience spiritual wickedness greater than we can bear, to not know temptations, to be ignorant of the shipwrecks of faith, to have profound peace: and if ever there is something that stirs up heavy waves of this world for us, to have the vigilant Lord Jesus as our pilot, who commands with a word, who calms the storm, who restores the tranquility of the sea, to whom is honor and glory, praise, everlastingness from ages and now and always, forever and ever. Amen.

Chapter VI. (Sermo V.)

The appearance of the earth, which is found in its sprouting and greenness, is conveniently added; it provides the voice of God as the cause of fertility, which some mistakenly attribute to the heat of the sun.

25. As the water receded, it was fitting that the appearance of the earth and grace should be given, so that it would no longer be invisible and formless. For many also say that what does not have appearance is invisible; and therefore they take the earth to have been invisible, not because it could not be seen by the highest God or his angels, for humans had not yet been created, nor even animals, but because it was without its appearance. However, the appearance of the earth is the budding and greenness of the field. And so, in order to make the earth visible and composed, God said: Let the earth bring forth grass, yielding seed according to its kind, and the fruit tree yielding fruit according to its kind, whose seed is in itself (Gen. I, 11).

26. Let us hear the words of truth, whose series is the salvation of those who listen. For the first voice of God, imparted to each created being for the purpose of procreation, is the law of nature, which remains on earth for all ages, giving a prescription for future succession, so that the process of reproduction and fructification may grow in usefulness. Therefore, the first germination occurs when the nascent things seem to burst forth: then, when the germ bursts forth and progresses, it becomes a plant: and when the plant has progressed a little, it becomes hay. How useful, how powerful a voice. Let the earth bring forth the grass of hay, that is, let the earth itself bring forth, needing no help from any other, not requiring anyone's assistance.

27. For many are accustomed to say: Unless the milder heat of the sun warms the earth and in some way nurtures it with its rays, the earth will not be able to bring forth vegetation. And for this reason, people attribute divine honor to the sun; because with the power of its heat it penetrates the depths of the earth and nurtures scattered seeds, or it loosens the frozen veins of trees. Therefore, listen to God as if he were uttering this voice: Let the foolish talk of men who is to come to an end, let empty opinion depart. Before the sun becomes a luminary, let the grass grow: let its antiquity have precedence over that of the sun. Lest the error of men prevail, let the earth bring forth before receiving the nourishment of the sun. Let all know that the sun is not the creator of what is born. The gentleness of the earth loosens it, and by the indulgence of God, it produces fruits. How does the sun serve the purpose of life to the newly born, when they are first brought forth by the divine operation of vivification before the sun comes into play for these purposes of life? He is younger than the plants, younger than the hay.

Chapter VII.

Why was food created for livestock before it was created for humans? Lush grass represents the human condition, whose fragility is beautifully portrayed. We should imitate the same grass by bearing fruit; this is where the Manichaeans and the Eunomians are criticized.

28. And perhaps someone may wonder that food for cattle was created before food for man. In this we must first recognize the profoundness of God, who does not neglect even the smallest things, as the Wisdom of God says in the Gospel: Look at the birds of the air; they neither sow nor reap nor gather into barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not of more value than they? (Matthew 6:26). For when they are fed by the grace of God, no one should boast of their own industry and virtue. Then because he ought to prefer simple and natural food to other foods. For this is the food of temperance, the others of pleasure and luxury: this is the common food of all animals, that of a few. Therefore, it is an example of frugality, a teaching of thrift, that everyone should be content with the food of simple herbs and cheap spices or of the fruit that nature has offered, which the first generosity of God has given. That is healthy, that is useful food, which repels diseases, which cuts off indigestions, not by the labor of human childbirth, but poured out by the divine gift, crops without sowing, fruits without seeds, so sweet, so pleasing, that it is even to the fullness of pleasure and use. Finally, he moved on to the first course, and remained for the second.

29. But what miracle of this creature should I examine, and what proof of the working of wisdom should I express? For in this species of germination, both the image of human life is observed, and a certain emblem of our nature and condition is seen, and a mirror shines forth. That herb and the flower of hay are a representation of human flesh, as the interpreter of divine goodness expressed by means of the instrument of his own voice, saying: 'Cry out.' What shall I cry out? All flesh is grass, and all the glory of man is like the flower of the grass. The grass withers, and the flower falls: but the word of the Lord endures forever (Isaiah 40:6 et seq.). It is the opinion of God that the human voice is. God says, Cry: but in him Isaiah speaks. He replied, What shall I cry? And when he heard as if he were speaking, he added: All flesh is grass. And truly; for the glory of man flourishes in the flesh like grass: and what is considered lofty, is small like grass, premature like a flower, fleeting like grass it produces the greenness of life in appearance, not the solidity of fruit, offering the joyfulness of a flower, which will soon fall, like grass, which before it is uprooted, withers. For what strength can there be in the flesh, what lasting health can there be.

Today you may see a strong young man, in the prime of adolescence, flourishing with a pleasing appearance and a sweet complexion; tomorrow he appears to you changed in face and expression: he who yesterday seemed most elegant in the beauty of his appearance, today appears pitifully weakened by illness. For many, either labor breaks them, or poverty wastes them away, or indigestion troubles them, or wine corrupts them, or old age weakens them, or excessive pleasure emasculates them, or luxury fades their color. Isn't it true that the hay burns and the flower falls? Another noble bird, adorned with the plumes of ancestors and esteemed with the insignia of his forefathers, rich in friends, surrounded by clients and protected on both sides, leading and supporting a large household, suddenly disturbed by the weight of some unexpected danger, is abandoned by all, deserted by companions, attacked by those closest to him. Behold, it is true that the life of man, like the hay, withers before it is uprooted. There is also someone who, having long been abundant in wealth, flying on the fame of generosity in the mouths of individuals, renowned in honors, superior in powers, lofty in tribunals, elevated on the throne, blessed, esteemed by the people, while he is being led by the shouting of heralds, is suddenly dragged into the prison by a sudden reversal of events, where he himself had thrown others, and among his fellow prisoners laments the torment of impending punishment. How great a crowd of applauding people led him, with envy, in a splendid procession to the house of the populous, and one night erased that glorious splendor of the procession, and sudden pain in his side mixed mournful heavy succession with the outpouring of joys! Therefore, the glory of man is like the flower of hay: which, even when it is carried away, adds nothing to works, in which no fruit is obtained; and when it is lost, it fades away, abandoning all the stage of man, and the shadow it cast from above, and the life it animated within.

31. And would that we imitate this herb, about which the Lord says: Let the earth bring forth grass, yielding seed according to its kind, and according to its likeness. Therefore, let us sow seed according to its kind. What is that kind? Hear Him who says that we must seek that divine thing, if we can handle or find it: Although it is not far from each one of us. For in Him we live, and move, and have our being; as some of your poets have said, 'For we are also His offspring.' (Acts 17:28). According to this kind, we sow seed not in flesh, but in spirit. For we ought to sow not carnal, but spiritual seeds, if we desire to attain eternal life. You are not ignorant of the likeness, for you were created in the image and likeness of God. The herb corresponds to its kind, but you do not correspond to your own kind. The grain of wheat, when scattered on the earth, produces fruit according to its kind, and yet you become degenerate. Crops do not adulterate the purity of their own seed, but you adulterate the purity of your soul, the vigor of your mind, and the chastity of your body.


32. You do not acknowledge that you need Christ's work. He, as we read, formed you with His own hands and you, Manichaean, associate another author with yourself. The Father God says to the Son: Let us make man in our image and likeness (Gen., I, 26); and you, Photinian, say that Christ was not yet in the constitution of the world; and you, Eunomian, say that the Son is dissimilar to the Father. For if He is an image, He is certainly not dissimilar: but expressing the whole from the whole, the Father, whom the Father has marked with the unity of His substance. The Father says: 'Let us do it'; and you deny being a coworker? what the Father said, the Son did; and you deny being equal, in which the Father was pleased.

Chapter VIII.

On the virtue of planting; and on the truly remarkable mode of germination and fruit bearing: also on the fertility of the earth, the beauty of the full field, and the healing power and remedies of herbs.

33. Let the earth bring forth grass, he says, according to its kind. In all things that are said to be born from the earth, the first thing is the seed; when it has lifted itself up a little, it becomes a plant, then hay, and then it becomes fruit. There are things that germinate from the root, like trees that are not sown, they grow from the roots of other trees. In the reed we see how at its extremity a certain knot is formed on the side, and from there another reed sprouts. Therefore, there is a certain force in the root of the seed. The shoots also sprout in the upper parts. Thus, in some cases, a series of succession is acquired from the root, and in other cases, a different function. For in each individual that is born, there is either a seed or some kind of seminal power, and this power is according to its kind, so that what is born from it may produce something similar to what was sown or originated from the root. From wheat comes wheat, from millet comes millet, and from wheat produces white flowers; similarly, the chestnut tree emerges from the root of the chestnut tree.


54. \"The earth,\" he says, \"may produce grass according to its kind.\" And immediately the earth, as if in labor, brought forth new offspring and clothed itself in the garb of greenness, assumed the grace of fertility, and, adorned with various shoots, assumed its own ornamentation. We marvel that it has sprouted so quickly; how much greater are the miracles if you consider each individual thing, how seeds, once thrown into the earth, are dissolved and, unless they are dead, produce no fruit; but if they are dissolved by a kind of death, they rise again into more abundant fruitfulness. So the rotten grain receives the earth in its womb, and the scattered stalk holds it back, and as if it were nurtured in its mother's lap, it cherishes and compresses it. Then, when that grain has dissolved, it brings forth grass, a pleasant species of greenery itself, which immediately reveals the likeness of its cultivated kind; so that at the very beginning of its own line you can recognize what kind of herb it is, and in herbs the fruits appear; and gradually it grows like hay, and it rises up and becomes covered in stems. But when the kneeled spike has already been raised, certain sheaths are prepared for the future grain, in which the inner grain is formed; so that its tender beginnings are not harmed by cold or burned by the heat of the sun or shaken by the harshness of the winds or the violence of the rain. Certain rows of spikes follow, formed with marvelous skill, either pleasing to the eye or bound together by a certain natural connection as a means of protection, which divine providence formed. And so that the support of the heavier grain may not yield, like a certain prop of stems, the stem itself is enclosed in certain sheaths, so that with doubled strength it may be able to support manifold grain, lest it be bent to the ground by an uneven burden. Then above the grain itself a wall is built of awns, as if to protect it with a kind of fortress, lest it be harmed by the nibbles of smaller birds, or be stripped of its own fruit, or be trampled by footsteps.

35. What can I say about how the mercy of God has looked out for the benefit of humanity? It restores what it receives with interest, and multiplies it with a heap of usury. People are often deceived, and they themselves defraud their own usurer in turn: the land remains faithful. And if ever it does not repay, perhaps due to the harshness of winter, or excessive drought, or an immense amount of rain, it compensates for the losses of the previous year in the following year; and likewise, when the crop fails to fulfill the farmer's hope, the land is not to blame: and when it smiles, the abundance of the fruitful mother pours itself out into childbirth, so as never to bring any harm to its creditor.


But what a sight is a full field! What a scent! What sweetness! What pleasure for farmers! What can we adequately describe, if we use our own speech? But we have testimonies from Scripture, by which we compare the sweetness of fields to the blessing and grace of the saints, as holy Isaac says: The scent of my son is like the scent of a full field (Gen., XXVII, 27). So, what can I describe? The purplish violets, the white lilies, the shining roses, the depicted fields now with golden, now with various, now with yellow flowers, in which you do not know whether the beauty of the flowers or the delightful fragrance is more pleasing. The eyes are nourished by a pleasing spectacle, the fragrance spreads far and wide, and we are filled with its sweetness. Hence the divine Lord says: 'And the beauty of the field is with me' (Psalm 49:11); for what he formed is with him. For what other artist can express such singular beauty of things? Consider the lilies of the field (Matthew 6:28), how great is their brightness in the leaves, how the clustered leaves themselves seem to rise from the bottom to the top, as if they were expressing the form of a cup, as if a certain brilliance of gold were shining inside, which, however, enclosed by the rampart around the flower, opens to no damage. If anyone were to pick this flower and release its petals, what great skill of an artist would be able to reform it into the shape of a lily? Who is such a great imitator of nature, that he presumes to restore this flower, of which the Lord gave such testimony, saying: 'Not even Solomon, in all his glory, was dressed as one of these' (ibid., 29)? The most wealthy and wise king is considered inferior to the beauty of this flower.


Why should I enumerate the beneficial juices of herbs? Or the remedies of shrubs and leaves? A sick deer gnaws on olive branches and becomes healthy. Locusts, too, are relieved of illness by olive leaves soaked in water. Snake is killed by placing raspberry leaves on it. Mosquitoes will not touch you if you boil wormwood herb with oil and anoint yourself with it.

Chapter IX.

Evil is generated with useful things not without reason; when what is harmful to one is beneficial to another; and God has bestowed reason upon humans to avoid harmful things, as instinct has been given to animals. What a beautiful order is preserved in the fruitfulness of the earth.


But perhaps some might say: What about the fact that even harmful and deadly things are produced alongside beneficial ones? With hemlock, for example, which is found among life-sustaining foods and can be harmful to health if not identified in advance. Among other sources of sustenance, hellebore is also found. Aconite too often deceives and misleads those who gather it. But this is like criticizing the earth because not all people are good. But consider this: not all angels in heaven are good either. The sun itself, due to excessive heat, parches the ears of grain, but it burns the early beginnings of those that are growing. The moon also shows the way to travelers, and it reveals the ambushes of robbers. Therefore, is it worthy for us to neglect the gratitude towards the creator in favor of those things which are useful, just because of certain harmful aspects of food in relation to the foresight of the creator, as if indeed everything should have been brought forth for the sake of gluttony, or as if there are only a few things that divine indulgence has provided for our stomachs? We have defined meals, which are known to everyone, that generate both pleasure and the health of the body.

39. But each of the things that are generated from the earth has a special reason, which fills the whole fullness of creation with a male portion. Therefore, some are born for food, others for other uses. Nothing is empty, nothing is barren on the earth. What you think is useless to you, is useful to others; indeed, it is often useful to you in a different way. What does not help you as food, suggests medicine: and often the same things that are harmful to you provide harmless nourishment to birds or wild animals. Finally, starlings feed on henbane, and it is not harmful to them, because through the quality of their body they avoid the poison of deadly juice. For the cold power of this juice, which is conducted through delicate pores to the seat of their heart, they prevent premature digestion before it attacks their vital organs. However, experts say that hellebore is their food and nourishment, because through a certain natural temperament of their body, they avoid the harmful force of the food. For indeed, often by the rationality of medicine, it is adapted to the well-being of the human body, which seems to be contrary: the more it benefits by the nature's property for food, which is turned into health by the healing hand! Through mandrake also sleep is frequently summoned, where the sick are afflicted by the discomfort of wakefulness. For what should I say about opium, which has become known to us almost daily by its nearly constant use, since the most severe pains of internal organs are often lulled by it? Nor does it pass unnoticed that connubial love often quenches the burning passions of lust, and the long-standing afflictions of the sick body are relieved by hellebore.

40. Therefore, not only is there no blame on the creator in these things, but there is even an increase in gratitude. For what you thought to be a danger, works for your salvation. For even what is a danger is avoided through providence, and what is for salvation is not lost through diligence. Have not sheep and goats learned to avoid things that are harmful to them, and by the smell alone, through a certain mystery of nature, even though they lack reason, they recognize the method of avoiding danger and preserving their safety, and they distinguish what is harmful from what is helpful. So much so that often, when they have sensed the weapons armed with poison, they seek known herbs and are said to apply them as a remedy for their wounds? Therefore, food is their medicine, so that you see the arrows rebounding from a wound and poison fleeing, not creeping. Finally, food is poison to deer. The snake flees from the deer, kills the lion: it binds the dragon-elephant, whose downfall is the death of the victor. And therefore, with the utmost force, the battle is fought on both sides; the former to bind the foot, in which the bound one cannot harm itself; the latter so that it is not caught by the hindmost foot or a narrow path, where it cannot turn, and crush the dragon with a heavy step, or not have the help of the following elephant.


Therefore, if irrational animals are aware of the herbs that can either heal them or provide assistance, then man does not know to whom rational sense is inherent or is so estranged from the truth that he least understands what is suitable for each individual's use. Either he is ungrateful to nature's blessings or, because the consumption of bull's blood is lethal to humans, he thinks that laborious animals should not have been born or that they should have been generated without blood. Their virtues support farmers in various tasks: useful for the cultivation of fields, suitable for the use of wagons, delightful for sustenance. To these farmers, to whom God has bestowed his blessings if they understand them, he says: Let the earth bring forth grass yielding seed according to its kind. For it includes not only the natural nourishment found in plants and roots, and in the fruits of trees and other produce, but also that which is obtained through industry and acquired through the work of farmers.

42. How proper it is that he commanded the seeds not to be immediately sown into the earth and bear fruit, but to first sprout, then cover the fields with grass, and afterwards grow into plants according to their own nature, so that the fields would never be empty of grace, which first adorned them with pleasing beauty and then provided them with the usefulness of fruits!

Chapter X.

Seeds never truly degenerate, when their species is not changed, but their perfection: for tares and weeds do not at all arise from the seed of the wheat. The Word of God bestowed a wonderful fertility upon the earth before man sinned; yet the earth is not completely deprived of it even now.


But perhaps someone might ask: How does the earth bring forth seeds according to their kind, when often the sown seeds degenerate? And when good wheat has been sown, its color becomes dull and its form becomes inferior? But if this ever happens, it seems to be referred not to a change in kind, but to a certain sickness and inequality of the seed. For the wheat does not cease to be wheat if it is scorched by cold or soaked by rain, but it is changed more in appearance than in kind, in color and corruption. Finally, frequently soaked grains return to their own kind if they are either dried by the sun or fires, or entrusted to diligent cultivators, if they are nurtured by the temperate air and fertile land. Therefore, what has degenerated in the parent is repaired in the offspring. Hence, we do not fear that this command of God, whose use has become ingrained in nature, will be lacking in the future due to the defect of succession, since even today the purity of its own kind is preserved in the seeds.


44. For we have learned from the reading of the Gospel (Matt. XIII, 24) that darnel and other adulterated seeds are often mixed with wheat, and are called zizania. But they have a distinct nature of their own; having been translated from the seed of wheat into another kind of seed by a change of color, they have acquired a degenerate nature. Finally, the Lord teaches this, saying: 'The kingdom of heaven is like a man who sowed good seed in his field; but while men slept, his enemy came and sowed tares among the wheat' (ibid). Indeed, we are warned that weeds and wheat seem to be distinct in both name and nature. Finally, the servants said to the master of the household: Lord, did you not sow good seed in your field? So where does the weed come from? And he said to them: An enemy has done this (Ibid., 27). For one is the seed of the devil, another is the seed of Christ that is sown for righteousness. Finally, the Son of Man has sown something different, and the devil has sown something different. So different is the nature of each seed, that the sower is contrary. What Christ sows is the kingdom of God: what the devil sows is sin. How then can the kingdom and sin be of the same kind? It is, he says, the kingdom of God, just as if a man throws seed upon the earth.

45. There is also a man who sows the word, about which it is written: He who sows, sows the word (Mark IV, 14). This man sowed the word upon the earth, when he said: Let the earth bring forth grass, and suddenly the buds of the earth sprouted, and the various species of things shone forth. From this the green grace of meadows supplied an abundance of fodder: hence the yellowing ear of the fields expressed the image of the sea, with the commotion of the ripening crop. Spontaneously all the fruits of the earth sprouted forth: although it could not be cultivated without a cultivator, for the farmer had not yet been formed; nevertheless, the untilled land abounded with abundant harvests, and I have no doubt of a greater yield. For indeed the fertility of the land could not be deprived by the negligence of the cultivator. Now, fertility is acquired by each person according to the merit of their labor, where the cultivation of the fields is observed; and negligence or offense, or the flooding of rain, or the dryness of the land, or the hurling of hail, or any other cause, is punished by the sterility of the fertile soil. Then, however, the earth produced spontaneous fruit in all places; for He had commanded, who is the fullness of all. For the Word of God made the earth fruitful, and there was as yet no cursed land. For the beginnings of the world that was created are older than our sins; and the more recent guilt is that by which we are condemned to eat bread by the sweat of our brow and to be ignorant of nourishment without sweat.

46. Finally, even today the fertility of the earth operates a long-standing abundance through the spontaneous use of fertility. For there are many things that still generate spontaneously. But even in these things that are sought by human hands, a great part of divine benefits remain with us, so that even the grains themselves are produced while we are at rest. This is taught as an example of the proposed lesson, with the Lord saying: For the kingdom of God is like a man who throws seed upon the earth and then sleeps and rises, night and day, and the seed sprouts and grows, while he does not know how (Mark, IV, 26). For the earth produces fruit willingly, first grass, then ear, then full wheat in the ear. And when it has produced fruit, it immediately sends forth the sickle, for the harvest is at hand. Therefore, to you, o man, who sleep and know not its fruits, the earth produces them willingly. You sleep and rise, and marvel at the growth of wheat during the night.

Chapter XI.

On the origin of trees: and therein of the rose, which first grew without thorns, but afterward became bristly, and has become a mirror of our life.


We have spoken about the grass of hay, now let us speak about the fruitful wood that produces fruit according to its kind, whose seed is in itself. He spoke and it became, and suddenly, as above with flowers and the greenness of herbs, so here the earth was clothed with forests. The trees gathered together, the woods arose, the tops of the mountains suddenly became covered in foliage. From here the pine tree and the cypress raised themselves to the heights, the cedars and firs gathered together. The fir tree, not content with earthly roots and an airy summit, also ventured to brave the dangers of the sea with secure rowing, contending not only with winds but also with waves. And the laurel, rising up, gave forth its fragrance, never to be stripped of its covering. The shady oaks also raised their tops, preserving their shaggy hair even in winter. For nature granted this privilege to each of them individually, which they received when the world was created, and thus their prerogative remains with the oaks, it remains with the cypresses, so that no wind may strip them of the glory of their foliage.


Before the flowers rose, the rose was mixed with earthly thorns without any deceit, and the most beautiful flower bloomed without any fraud. Afterwards, the thorn concealed the grace of the flower, like a mirror of human life, which often pricks its sweetness with neighboring stimuli of cares. For the elegance of our life is surrounded by certain anxieties, so that sadness is joined to grace. Therefore, when each person rejoices either in the sweetness of reason or in the successes of a prosperous course, it is fitting for him to remember the fault through which the thorns of the mind and the brambles of the soul have been duly assigned to us who flourish in the delightful paradise. Therefore, it is useless, o man, whether in the splendor of nobility, or the height of power, or the brilliance of virtue, there is always a thorn next to you, always prickly, always looking down on your lower parts, you grow upon thorns, and no prolonged grace remains: quickly, everyone withers in the flower of their age.

Chapter XII.

The vine is praised, and compared with the Church: and moreover its example is set before us for imitation.

Indeed, just as you know that perishable things are common to you with flowers, so also joyful things are common to you with vines, from which wine is produced, which gladdens the heart of man. And I hope, O man, that you imitate the example of this kind, so that you yourself may bear fruit of joy and delight! The sweetness of your grace is within yourself, it sprouts from you, it remains in you, it is within you, that is, the joy of your conscience is to be sought within yourself. Therefore, it says: Drink water from your own vessels, and from the fountains of your own wells (Prov., V, 15). First of all, nothing is more pleasing than the scent of a blooming vine. For, from the flower of the vine, a juice is extracted to make a kind of drink that is both delightful and healthful. Then, who would not marvel at how the vine, starting from the grape, climbs all the way to the top of the tree's summit, as if it were embracing it, and binds it with certain branches, and surrounds it with its arms, adorns it with its tendrils, and crowns it with clusters of grapes? This, resembling our own lives, first establishes a living root, then because it is flexible and perishable by nature, it binds whatever it grasps with certain branches and also with little key-like appendages, and raises and lifts itself up with them.


50. This people of the Church is similar, which is planted as if with a certain root of faith, and is restrained by the shoot of humility, of which the Prophet says beautifully: You have transplanted a vine from Egypt, and have planted its roots, and have filled the earth. Its shade has covered the mountains, and its branches the cedars of God. You have stretched out its branches to the sea, and its shoots to the river (Psalm 79:9). And through Isaiah the Lord himself spoke, saying: A vineyard has been made for my beloved in a fertile place. And I have enclosed it with a wall, and have dug around the vineyard of Sorech, and have built a tower in its midst (Isaiah 5:1-2). For it has surrounded her like a wall of celestial precepts, and the guardianship of angels. For the angel of the Lord will encamp around those who fear Him. He has placed her in the Church like a tower of the apostles and prophets and teachers, who are accustomed to defend the peace of the Church. He has dug around her, when he has relieved her of the burden of worldly anxieties. For nothing burdens the mind more than the solicitude and desire for wealth or power in this world. What is shown to you in the Gospel (Luke 13:11) when you read, that the woman who had a spirit of infirmity was bent over and could not look up. For her soul was crooked, inclined to earthly gains, and she did not see heavenly grace. Jesus looked at her, called her, and immediately the woman laid down her earthly burdens. He demonstrates that those who were burdened also had those desires, to whom he says: Come to me, all you who labor and are burdened, and I will refresh you (Matthew 11:28). Therefore, that woman's soul, as if surrounded, breathed and stood up.

But the same vine, when it has been dug around, is pruned and raised up so that it does not hang down to the ground. Some of the branches are cut off and others are propagated: those branches that grow excessively are cut off, while those that the good farmer judges to be fruitful are propagated. Should I describe the ranks of supports and the arrangement of the vines, which truly and clearly teach that equality must be preserved in the Church, so that no one exalts himself because of wealth or honor, and no one casts aside the poor or despairs because of ignobility? Let there be equal and unified freedom for all in the Church, let common justice and grace be shared with all. Therefore, there is a tower in the midst, which serves as an example for the common farmers and fishermen, who have deserved to hold the fortress of virtues: let our emotions be elevated by their examples, and not lie low as base and despised; but let each person's mind strive for higher things, so that they may dare to say: But our conversion is in heaven. Wherever one may be shaken by the storms of the world and led astray by the tempest, they are embraced by those key and circular bonds as if in the arms of love, and find rest in their union. Therefore, it is charity that connects us to the higher realm and joins us to heaven. For whoever remains in charity, God remains in them. Hence, the Lord says: Abide in me, and I in you. Just as a branch cannot bear fruit by itself unless it abides in the vine, neither can you unless you abide in me. I am the vine, you are the branches (John, 15:4).

52. Therefore, the vine has clearly indicated itself as an example to be drawn upon for the establishment of our way of life, which is first said to bud when warmed by the temperature of spring: then to produce fruit from the very joints of its branches, from which the budding grape is formed, and gradually growing, it retains the bitterness of its immature offspring, and can only become sweet when fully ripe and cooked. Meanwhile, the vine is covered with flourishing tendrils, which provide considerable support against the cold and protect it from the heat of the sun. But what is more pleasing to me, or more delightful than a spectacle, than to see wreaths hanging like beautiful rural necklaces, to pluck grapes shining with a golden or purple color? You think the hyacinths and other gems sparkle, the Indian gems flash, and the grace of the white ones gleam. Do not overlook the warning in these, O man, lest your final days find your fruits premature, or the time of a full life make your unfinished works disgraceful. For bitter fruit tends to be more unpleasant; and it cannot be sweet unless it has reached the maturity of perfection. To this perfect man, neither the cold of dreaded death nor the sun of iniquity usually does harm because he is overshadowed by spiritual grace and extinguishes the fires of all worldly desires and bodily lusts. Let all who behold you praise you, and let the ranks of the Church marvel at you like a garland of palm branches. Let each one behold the beautiful necklaces of the faithful souls; let them delight in the maturity of prudence, the splendor of faith, the beauty of confession, the loveliness of justice, and the abundance of mercy, so that it may be said to you: Your wife is like a fruitful vine on the sides of your house (Ps. CXXVII, 3); because you imitate the abundance of a fruitful vine and the bountiful gift of generosity.

Chapter XIII.

On the usefulness and diversity of trees; on the method of grafting and healing them; finally, on the properties of tree sap: with a moral explanation for each point.

53. But why should I dwell only on human life, when all kinds of trees are useful, some created for fruit, others for utility? For even those without abundant fruit have a precious use. The cedar is suitable for hanging roofs, because this type of wood is tall and spacious, but not burdensome to the walls. The cypress is also suitable for ceilings and gables. Hence, the Church says in the Canticles: 'The beams of our houses are made of cedar, our ceilings of cypress' (Song of Songs 1:16), explaining that the decorations of its structure are in these, as if the beams sustain the crown of the Church with their own strength and adorn its peak. The laurel and the palm are the symbols of victory. The heads of the victors are crowned with laurel, and the hand of the conqueror is adorned with a palm. Hence the Church says: I said, I will go up to the palm tree, I will take hold of its branches (Song of Songs, 7:8). Seeing the excellence of the Word and hoping that she can ascend to His height and the summit of knowledge, she says: I will go up to the palm tree, so that she may leave behind all lower things and strive for higher things, for the reward of Christ, so that she may enjoy and taste the sweet fruits of His love. For the fruit of virtue is sweet. The people also declare mystically with crowns the victorious shady tree, and the flexible willow useful for binding vines, what else do they declare except that the bonds of Christ are good, which do not harm, the bonds of grace, the bonds of charity, so that everyone may boast in their own bonds, just as Paul also boasted, saying: Paul, a prisoner of Jesus Christ (Philem. I, 1)? Bound by these bonds, he said: Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? (Rom. VIII, 35)? The chains of abstinence, the chains of charity. Bound by these chains, David also says: In the willows, in the midst thereof, we hung up our harps (Ps. CXXXVI, 2). Likewise, the boxwood tree, useful for carving the tips of musical instruments, shapes the skill of a young hand with its light material. Hence the Scripture says: Write in boxwood (Esa., XXX, 8). At the same time, may the very material that is always green and never sheds its leaves remind you to never be exposed by the dissimulation of your hope, but may it always bring forth hope of salvation to you through faith.


Why should I enumerate the great variety of trees, the diverse and beautiful adornment in each one, the expansive beech trees, the tall firs, the abundant pines, the shady oaks, the two-colored poplars, the wooded and evergreen chestnut trees, which, when cut down, are accustomed to sprout as if a forest from themselves; just as in the trees themselves, either a mature or a young age is found; for the younger ones have thinner branches, while the older ones have stronger and knotty limbs: the former have smooth and spread-out leaves, the latter have more condensed and rough leaves. There are also trees that, even with an old and dead root, do not know how to regenerate themselves if they are cut down. Others, in which either youth flourishes or nature is more fruitful, benefit from being cut down, so that they are renewed through the succession of their offspring.

There is also, something which you may marvel at, distinction of sex even in fruits, and distinction of sex in trees. For you may see a palm which bears dates, mostly bending its branches and submitting them, and assuming the appearance of desire and embrace to that tree, which boys of the country call a male palm. Therefore, that palm is of linen, and confesses its sex by the appearance of submission. Hence, the tillers of the place throw upon the branches of it the seeds of date-palms, or shoots of male trees, with which seeds the female tree, as it were with some representation of performance, is impregnated, and the desired cohabitation is represented. By this skill, when again given, it is raised up and lifts its branches and raises its hair again to its old condition. The same opinion is held about the fig tree. And therefore many people are said to graft a wild fig tree onto a domestic and fruitful fig tree, because the fruits of that fertile and domestic fig tree are reported to fall quickly either by an attempted breeze or by heat to the ground. Hence those who are knowledgeable about this, bind the branches of the wild tree to that fruitful tree in order to heal its weakness, so that it may be able to save its own fruits, and soon if they are in danger of being destroyed, the remedies will be about to fall. In this way, we are reminded not to give up on those who have separated from our faith and community, as if they were a puzzle of nature. The more serious the proponent of the error, the more vehemently they can become a defender of the faith. And if someone converts from heresy, they can confirm the side they have turned to, especially if they have something directly related to nature. Their viewpoint can be vivid if supported by the attention of sobriety and the observance of chastity. Therefore, immerse yourself deeply in your study of him, so that you may strengthen your virtue through the fruitful likeness of that fig tree, from its presence and connection to that rustic tree. For in this way, your intention will not be dissolved, and the fruits of diligence and grace will be preserved.

But there are many things that teach that natural hardness can be tempered by the study of diligence, as the example of rural cultivation brings! For often, pomegranate trees quickly bloom, but they cannot bear fruit unless they are cultivated with proper remedies by experts: often the juice fades away internally, and its strong appearance is displayed beautifully. This can rightfully be compared to the Church, as you have in the Song of Songs directed to the Church: Your cheeks are like the skin of a pomegranate (Song of Songs, 4:3). And below: If the vine flourished, the pomegranates also flourished (Song of Songs, VII, 12). For the Church presents the good splendor of faith and confession, with the beauty of many martyrs' blood, and what is more, endowed with the blood of Christ; at the same time, preserving many fruits within itself by the use of this fruit under one protection, and encompassing many matters of virtue. For the wise spirit conceals affairs. Farmers are also said to heal the almond tree with this kind of medicine, so that its bitter fruits become sweet, and also to burn its root and insert a branch of that same tree, which the Greeks call a 'pine', but we call it a fir tree; by doing this, the bitterness of the sap is removed. Therefore, if agriculture can transform the qualities of plants, can the pursuit of knowledge and the attention to discipline not mitigate any ailments of the passions? Therefore, no one positioned in the slippery slope of youth or intemperance should despair of their transformation. Wood is usually transformed into better uses, can't hearts of humans be changed?

We have learned that not only among different kinds of trees are there diversities of fruits, but often within the same species of trees the fruits themselves are in conflict with one another. For there is one species of male fruits, another of female fruits, as we have stated above concerning dates. But who can comprehend the variety, the species, and the charm of apples, and the individual usefulness of each fruit, and the properties of the juices that seem suitable to each thing? For example, how bitter apples can heal sickly organs of human bodies, and how they can reduce internal inflammation and roughness, and how, conversely, the roughness of certain juices can be tempered by the sweetness of apples. Finally, that more ancient medicine, which used to heal with herbs and juices; and there is no stronger health than the one that is restored by wholesome foods. Therefore, according to nature, we are taught that food alone is medicine for us. Certainly, external wounds are closed with herbs, and internal ones are healed with herbs. And that's why it is the task of doctors to know the powers of herbs. From here, the practice of healing has become ingrained.

Chapter XIV.

On the differences in simple fruits and the diversity of leaves, especially on the grapevine and fig leaves, and the various shapes of other leaves.


58. But, in order to simplify the matter, there are some fruits that are cooked by the sun, while others are filled with pulp or enclosed in a husk or rind. Apples and pears, as well as all types of grapes, are exposed to the sun without any covering. However, walnuts and chestnuts, even their kernels, are nourished and nurtured by the heat of the sun, even though they are covered by a shell or husk. And the denser the shell of a pine nut, the more it is nourished by the heat of the sun.

Then how great is the providence of the Lord, that where the fruit is softer, there the thickness of the leaves provides a stronger covering for the fruit, as we see in the fruit of the fig tree. Therefore, the more delicate things must be protected by stronger ones, as the Lord himself teaches through Jeremiah, saying: 'Just as I will recognize these good figs that I have sent from this place to the land of the Chaldeans as good, and I will set my eyes upon them for good.' (Jeremiah 24:5). As if with a certain stronger covering of his mercy, he protected them like delicate ones, lest the ripe fruits perish prematurely. In the end, he says of them even in the following: My delicate ones have walked in rough ways (Baruch, IV, 26). To them he says further below: Be steadfast, O children, and cry out to God (ibid., 27). For this alone is an inviolable covering, an impenetrable fortress against all storms and injuries. Where there are therefore tender fruits, there will be thicker coverings and protections of leaves. On the other hand, where the fruits are stronger, there will be more delicate leaves, as the apple tree shows. For a stronger fruit does not need much help in protection; for the shade itself of a thicker protection could harm the fruit more.

Finally, let the vine leaf teach us the grace of nature, and the internal mysteries of divine wisdom. For we see it so divided and separated, as to seem to show the appearance of three separate leaves: with the middle part distinct, so that it would appear separate to onlookers unless it clung to the lower parts. And this seems to be a design of nature, that it both more easily admits the sun, and covers with shade. Finally, the middle part extends higher, and thins at its very top, so that it presents more beauty than covering. For the grape seems to portray the appearance of a mark, signifying that it has the primacy among the other hanging fruits, to which with a certain silent judgment of nature, but with clear evidence, the mark and prerogative of victory is born. Therefore, it carries its own mark with it, by which it is also provided with protection against the injuries of the air, as well as the violence of rain, and it does not hinder the reception of the heat of the sun, by which it is warmed, colored, and increased. The leaf of the fig tree is also divided into four parts, just like the vine leaf: which is clearer the larger the leaf is, although not as much as the vine leaf or the edge of the leaf, or the top of the curled leaf. Just as the thickness of the fig leaf is stronger, so is the appearance of the vine leaf more elegant. Therefore, the thickness of the leaf helps to repel the damage caused by the weather, while the division helps to release the vapor for the sake of the fruits. Finally, this type of fruit does not quickly perceive hail, but it quickly feels ripeness; because it seems to be able to hide from harm, and to be open to favor.


61. Why should I describe the various differences of leaves, how some are round, some are longer, some are flexible, some are stiffer, some are not easily blown by any winds, some are shaken by a gentle breeze?

Chapter XV.

The amazing diversity of water! From it arises the variety of fruits that feed on it, and the difference of tears that fall from trees; to which is added an excuse for more detailed examination.


62. It is inexplicable to desire to investigate the properties of individual things, and to distinguish the manifest testimonies of their diversities, or to reveal hidden and secret causes with unfailing evidence. For, indeed, water is one and the same, and often transforms itself into different appearances: either yellow among the sand, or foamy among the rocks, or greener among the woods, or multicolored among the flowers, or brighter among the lilies, or more dazzling among the roses, or more liquid among the grass, or more turbid among the marsh, or clearer in the spring, or darker in the sea, assuming the color of the places through which it flows. It also changes in intensity in equal measure, so that it boils among vapors, cools among shadows, heats up when reflected by the sun, and turns gray when drenched in glacial moisture. Likewise, its taste itself changes, now rougher, now more bitter, now more intense, now more astringent, now sweeter depending on the quality of the substances with which it has been infused. It becomes rougher with unripe juices, pounded nut shell, and crushed leaves; it becomes more bitter with wormwood, more intense with wine, more astringent with garlic; it becomes heavy with poison, sweetened with honey. But if the juice of lentisk is indeed mixed with the fruits of terebinth or the inner part of the nut, it is easily transferred into a soft oil nature. However, since it is the nourisher of all the shrubs, it provides different uses to each. If it is watered with roots or descends poured from the clouds, it gives distinct powers to all, fattens the root, elevates the trunk, spreads the branches, makes the leaves green, nourishes the seeds of the fruits, and is accustomed to increase the fruit. Therefore, since the same nurse nourishes all things, some kinds of trees produce more bitter juices, others produce sweeter juices, some produce slower ones, others produce premature ones. They also differ among themselves in terms of sweetness. One sweetness is found in the vineyard, another in the olive tree, another in cherries, another in the river, distinguished in the apple, different in the date palm.

63. The taste of water itself is gentle in some places, rougher in others, and usually thicker. It also often varies in weight as in appearance. For in many places it is considered heavier, in many places lighter. Therefore, it is not surprising that when it differs from itself, the tears of trees, which are generated by the same water's inundation, also differ from each other. And since there is one cause for all, the uses are different for each one, the nature is different. The tears of the cherry tree have a different power than the tears of the mastic tree. Moreover, it is said that even drops of odoriferous balsam are produced by the sweating of aromatic woods of the East; and also that a different kind of tears is shed by the reeds of fennel-giant in Egypt and Libya, by the power, as it were, of a more secret nature. But why should I recount to you, though your attention is kindly, that amber is a tear of fennel-giant and that, as tears harden, so also does this material of such great solidity? Nor is this confirmed by insignificant evidence when tiny leaves or portions of the stems, or even certain small animals, are often found preserved in amber, which seems, while the drop was still soft, to have absorbed them and kept them solidified.


64. But why should I decide with cheap language when I have the deep and precious reasoning of nature, when that language is nourished by human ingenuity, while divine providence has shaped the nature of all things? Hence, like reins that hold back the flow of words, there must be restraint; lest we seem to profanely expose the distinctions of trees and the virtues of roots, and whatever is hidden and unexpected, as it is written (3 Kings 4:33), which are not even made known by Solomon himself; so that it seems to me that he could discuss the different types of plants, but could not fully explain all the reasons of creation.

Chapter XVI.

How the voice of the Lord suddenly caused every kind of shrub to sprout forth, providing sustenance, delight, and medicine. Also, how all plants contain either a seed or something that serves as a substitute for seed within themselves. About the great power of God in each one; specifically about the pine and the myrtle.

65. And if usually the crops are more abundant and green beans flourish, and the multitude of gardens is awakened and revived, then the grace also comes alive when the banks of overflowing rivers are decorated with green beds; just as, according to the word of the Lord, when the abundance of water overflows, all the creatures of the shrubs suddenly bloom. The fields hurried to produce the fruit that was not given to them, the unknown varieties of garden vegetables germinated, the miracles of flowers bloomed, and the banks of the rivers clothed themselves in myrtles: the trees hurried to rise quickly, to put on flower quickly, to provide sustenance for humans and food for cattle. The common fruit is for everyone, and its use is given to everyone. Both the trees produced different things - one for us to eat, the other to protect us from the heat of the sun with its refreshing shade. Food is found in the fruit, while the enjoyment comes from the leaves. However, because the Creator's foresight knew that human greed would claim the fruit for itself, provision was made for other creatures to have their own special nourishment. Thus, there is not insignificant food in the leaves and the bark of the trees, which are also used for medicinal purposes, such as juices, tears, and small branches. Therefore, those things which we have known to be useful after experience, practice, and example, the Creator in the beginning gave for our benefit, commanding them to go forth from the depths of the earth by His own majesty.

And because the Lord commanded that the earth should bring forth grass, herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after its kind, whose seed is in itself (lest perhaps anyone should say that in many trees there is neither fruit nor seed, and the divine commandment may be considered to waver in any way from the truth), let him take notice that it cannot possibly be that all things which bring forth do not make use of seeds or that they have anything which appears to agree with the power of seeds. And if anyone carefully considers this, they will be able to comprehend it by clear evidence. Willow trees do not seem to have seeds; however, they have in their leaves a certain grain that has the power of a seed, so that when it is planted in the earth, it may appear as a tree growing from a twig, and as if it were awakened from a seed. From that grain, the root first grows: from the root sprouts not only a willow tree, but also a whole forest of trees similar to this kind. And the generation of the root also has the power of a seed; hence, many have propagated their memory through this sowing of it.


67. Great is the power of God in individuals. Let no one be surprised that great power of God is spoken of in small things. For he himself said that his great power is in locusts and a gnat, because the offense against divine majesty was resolved with great moderation of Jewish sterility and poverty. For patience is great power, and providence is great power. Indeed, those who harmed the Creator of the earth were unworthy of using earthly fertility. And truly great is he who avenges such a great impiety with miserable hunger. Therefore, if God has generated a barren thorn bush with great power, how much more will he procreate with great power those things that are fruitful!

68. Who, seeing the pine tree, is not amazed at such a divine art, unknown and impressed on nature: how, from its very core, it rises evenly with measurements at varying distances, nourishing its own fruits with glue? Thus, through its circumference, the same species and order are maintained, and in each branch, some plentiful offspring of nuts abound, and the fruit and grace return in a circle. Thus, in this pine tree, it seems to express an image of its own nature, which keeps the privileges received from that first divine and celestial command, and returns its own offspring with a certain order and cycle of years, until the fulfillment of time is complete.


69. But just as in this fruit it marks a pleasing appearance of itself, so also in myrtles, that is, low shrubs, it expresses the form of wicked cunning. For just as men have a double heart everywhere, and display grace and simplicity among the good, and are glued to the most corrupt: so also in watery and desert places, these shrubs grow in a contrary manner. Hence Jeremiah compared doubtful and insincere morals to myrtles (Jer. XVII, 6).

Chapter XVII.

The astounding providence of God is revealed in the deafness of the human heart; this is especially evident in the case of evergreen trees and their variations, as well as in the discussion of the first cultivator of the vine and the use of wine.

70. He says, 'Let the earth bring forth green herb,' and immediately the whole earth, at the rising of the germ, is filled with all kinds of plants. And to man it is said: 'Love the Lord your God' (Deut., VI, 5), and the love of God is not infused into the hearts of all. The hearts of men are more deaf than the hardest rocks. The earth produces fruits for us undeservedly, while obeying its creator; we deny the debt of gratitude, while not honoring the creator.

71. Look at the small things which show the providence of God, and marvel that, though you cannot understand it, He has preserved some things in constant bloom, while others have chosen to change their attire and be stripped bare. Among the white snows, the cold frost, the fields maintain their greenery; and even when the roofs themselves are icy, their offspring still cover themselves with a considerable display of greenery. Likewise, among the various types of trees which are clothed in long-lasting foliage, there is a significant difference. He always preserves his clothing, either with oil or with pine, but nevertheless he often changes the leaves; nor do they pretend to be lasting, but rather as substitutes, overshadowing the beauty of their tree with the perpetual integrity of their dress. But the green palm always remains by means of preservation and longevity, not by the change of leaves. For whatever leaves she first produces, she preserves them without any succession of substitution. Therefore, imitate her, o man, so that it may be said of you as well: Your stature has become like a palm tree (Song of Songs, 7:7). Preserve the greenness of your childhood and that natural innocence which you received from the beginning, so that, being planted beside the flowing waters, you may have your fruit prepared in your time, and your leaf may not wither. The Church, following this ever-flourishing greenness of grace in Christ, says: 'In his shadow I desired, and I sat.' (Song of Songs, 2:3). The Apostles also received this privilege of the evergreen gift, not a leaf of theirs could ever fall, so that even their shadow could heal the sick. For the weaknesses of the body overshadow the faith of the mind, and the flourishing merits of virtues. Therefore, remain planted in the house of the Lord, so that in His courts you may flourish like a palm, and let the grace of the Church ascend in you, and let the fragrance of your nostrils be like apples, and your mouth like the best wine (Song of Songs, 7:9), so that you may be intoxicated in Christ.

72. This verse reminds us to repeat what has been almost forgotten, because we have said that the vine also sprouted by the command of the Lord, which we later learned was planted by Noah after the flood (Gen., IX, 20). So you see, Noah was a farmer of the land, and he planted the vine, and drank from its wine, and fell asleep. Therefore, Noah is not the creator of the vine, but of the planting. For he could not have planted it unless he had found it already generated. Therefore, the worshipper, not the creator, is the source of vice. But God, who knew that wine consumed in moderation would bring health and increase wisdom, and that excessive consumption would lead to vices, created the substance and left its abundance to human discretion. This way, the moderation of nature would serve as a lesson in sobriety, and the harmful consequences of excess would be attributed to human choice. In fact, even Noah himself became intoxicated and fell asleep as a result of wine. And so, through wine, the deformity that arose from the flood became evident to glory: but the Lord also reserved his grace in it, so that he might convert its fruit for our salvation, and through it forgiveness of sins might come to us. Therefore pious Isaac said: The smell of Jacob, the smell of a field full, that is, the natural smell (Gen., XXVII, 27). For what is sweeter than a full countryside? What is more pleasant than the smell of the vine? What is more pleasing than the blossom of the bean? Although whoever with great intelligence has said before us: The Patriarch did not anoint the vine or the fig tree, but he emitted the grace of virtues; nevertheless, I will accept the simple and sincere fragrance of the earth itself as a blessing, which no deceit has composed, but the truth of heavenly indulgence has poured out. Finally, among the most sacred blessings, it is included that the Lord may grant us the power of wine, oil, and grain from the dew of heaven: to whom is honor, praise, and glory, perpetuity from age to age, now and forever, and for all ages of ages. Amen.

Book Four. Of the Work of the Fourth Day.

Chapter I. (Sermo VI)

The reader is prepared for a correct understanding of the creation of the sun, and for refuting idolatry in relation to it; therefore, he establishes a comparison between the sun and its creator, and examines the order in which it was created, with an elegant personification of the earth.


When someone gathers the harvest, they are accustomed to cleaning the vessels in which the wine is poured beforehand, so that any stain does not take away from the beauty of the wine. For what benefit is it to plant the vine in rows, to dig it up every year, to draw furrows with plows, to prune, to graft onto elms, and to join in a certain union, if the wines acquired with so much labor are allowed to spoil in the vessel? Also, if someone desires to gaze at the rising of the morning sun, they clean their eyes; so that no dust, no impurity, settles in their eyes, which drink in the sight; and so that no hazy darkness obstructs the bodily sight of the viewer. We must be awakened by the sun in our reading, which was not there before. We have now spent the first day without the sun: the second day we have spent without the sun: the third day we have completed without the sun: on the fourth day God commands the luminaries, the sun, and the moon, and the stars to be made. The sun begins to cleanse the eyes of the mind, O man, and the inner sight of the soul, so that no mote of sin may blind the acuteness of your understanding, and disturb the vision of your pure heart. Cleanse your ear, so that you may receive in a pure vessel the bright streams of the divine Scripture, free from any contamination. The sun proceeds with its great mane, filling the world with great light, and heating with its warmth. Beware, O man, of considering only its magnitude; lest the excessive brightness of its appearance blinds the sight of your mind; just as one who looks directly into its rays, loses sight of everything suddenly due to the reflected light; and unless he turns his face and eyes towards other parts, he thinks he sees nothing and is cheated of the gift of vision; but if he averts his gaze, he continues to perform his complete duty. Therefore, be careful that the rising sun does not confuse your gaze. And for this reason, first behold the firmament of the heavens, which was made before the sun: behold the earth, which before the sun advanced, began to be visible and composed: behold its germs before the light of the sun. The beetle is older than the sun, the grass is older than the moon. Therefore, do not believe in God, to whom you see the gifts of God to be preferred. Three days have passed, and no one has sought the sun, and the brightness of the light has abounded. For it also has its own light, which precedes the sun. Therefore, do not rashly commit yourself to such great splendor of the sun. For it is the eye of the world, the delight of the day, the beauty of the sky, the grace of nature, the excellence of creation.

2. But when you see this, consider its author: when you marvel at this, praise first the creator himself. If the sun, a partner and sharer of creation, is so pleasing, how good is that sun of justice! If this one is so swift, to roam all things with swift courses day and night, how great is he who is everywhere always, and with his majesty fills all things? If the one who is commanded to go forth is admirable, how much more above admiration is he who speaks to the sun, and it does not rise, as we read (Job IX, 7)? If someone is great who travels to different places every day by the hour, what can be said of someone who even when he empties himself so that we can see him, is the true light that enlightens every person coming into this world? If he is the most excellent one, who often suffers setbacks for the sake of the world; how majestic is he who says: 'Once more I will shake the earth' (Haggai 2:6)? The earth hides him; its motion cannot endure unless supported by the substance of his will. If it is a loss for a blind person to not see the grace of the sun; how much more is it a loss for a sinner, deprived of the gift of true light, to endure the darkness of perpetual night?

Therefore, when you see the sun, pay attention to the earth, which was founded before it: pay attention to the grass of the fen, which surpasses by the privilege of its order: pay attention to the trees, which applaud because they began to exist before the luminaries of the sky. Is the worth of the fen greater than that of the sun? Or is the prerogative of the tree more valuable? Far be it from us to prefer the minister to the sensible objects of such a great gift. Therefore, what did the height of the wisdom and knowledge of God foresee, that the trees would begin to exist before those two luminaries of the world and certain heavenly eyes of the firmament; unless it was so that they would know, by the divine testimony of reading, that the earth can be fruitful without the sun? For just as the first seeds of things were able to germinate without the sun, they are certainly able to nourish the seeds they have received and produce offspring with their own sustenance without the heat of the sun.

Therefore, with this certain voice, nature proclaims of its own gifts: the sun is indeed good, but by service, not by command; he is a good helper of my fertility, but not the creator; he is a good nourisher of my fruits, but not the author. Sometimes he himself burns my offspring; frequently he himself is a detriment to me, leaving me destitute in many places. I am not ungrateful for his preservation; he has been given to me for use, he is entrusted to my labor, he is subjected to my vanity, he is subjected to my corruption, and he serves me in slavery. He groans with me, he labors with me, so that the adoption of sons may come, and the redemption of the human race, by which we too may be liberated from servitude. Standing with me, he praises the author, with me he sings a hymn to the Lord our God. Where his greater grace is, there is his shared fellowship with me. Where the sun blesses, there the earth blesses. The fruitful trees bless, the animals bless, the birds bless with me. The sailor accuses him of being placed in the sea, he longs for me: the shepherd turns away from him on the mountains, hastening to my sprouts, to my trees, which are overshadowed by the scorching heat, he runs to my fountains thirsty and tired.

Chapter II.

To serve the Son of God as the source from which he was created for the adornment of the celestial lights. Fertility is given to the earth by God, not by the sun, as he was made subject to the day, just as the moon is subject to the night, which is also applicable to Christ and the Church.


5. But so that the testimony of your eyes may not seem insufficient, cleanse your ear, bring it close to the heavenly oracles. For every word stands with two or three witnesses. Hear the one saying: Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens for the illumination of the earth (Gen. I, 14). Who says this? God says it. And to whom does He say it if not to the Son? Therefore, God the Father says: Let there be a sun; and the Son made the sun. For it was fitting that the Son of justice should make the sun of the world. So he led him into the light, he himself illuminated him, he himself granted him the power to create light. Therefore the sun was made; therefore it too serves, for it is said: You have founded the earth, and it remains: by your design the day remains, for all things serve you (Ps. 118:90-91). Indeed, if the day serves, how does the sun not serve, which was made to govern the day? How do the moon and stars not serve, which were made to govern the night? Indeed, the more grace the Creator has bestowed upon these things, the more the air shines with sunlight, the brighter the day, the darkness of the night is illuminated by the light of the moon and stars, the sky seems adorned with flowers, and the shining lights sparkle as if the paradise were radiant with living garlands of breathing roses. Therefore, the more beauty appears to have been bestowed upon these things, the more they should return. Whoever is entrusted with more, owes more. And therefore, it is well said by many that the adornment of the sky is called a precious necklace, because it is a collection of precious stars.

And so that we may know that the fertility of the earth is not attributed to the heat of the sun, but is entrusted to divine indulgence, the Prophet says: All things look to you, that you may give them food in due season: when you give it to them, they gather it up, when you open your hand, they are filled with good things (Ps. 104). And further: Send forth your Spirit and they shall be created, and you shall renew the face of the earth (ibid., 30). And in the Gospel: Consider the birds of the air, that they neither sow, nor reap, nor gather into barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them (Matt. 6, 16). Therefore, the sun or the moon are not the authors of fertility; but God the Father imparts the gift of fertility to all through the Lord Jesus.

7. But the Prophet explained to us beautifully what he himself says: For God has made the sun to have power over the day, and the moon to have power over the night (Ps. CXXXV, 8 and 9). For even in this hundredth and third psalm, about which we have spoken above, he writes: He made the moon for appointed times, the sun knows its setting (Ps. CIII, 19). For when the sun begins to fulfill its hours, it recognizes its proper setting. Therefore, the sun is in the power of the day, and the moon is in the power of the night, which is compelled to obey the succession of times, and now it is filled with light and now emptied: although many seem to understand this passage mystically concerning Christ and the Church; that Christ acknowledged the passion of His own body, who said: Father, the hour has come, glorify Your Son (John, XVII, 1), so that through His setting He might give eternal life to all, who were being pressed by the setting of perpetual death: and the Church has its own times, namely, of persecution and peace. For it seems that the moon wanes, but it does not wane. It can be overshadowed, but it cannot wane; because indeed it is diminished by the departure of some in persecutions, so that it may be filled by the confessions of martyrs, and its light, purified by the victories of shed blood for Christ, may pour forth a greater brightness of devotion and faith throughout the entire world. For the moon has a diminution of light, not of body, when it seems to deposit its light in its monthly cycle, so that it may be renewed by the sun; which can easily be understood, when it is obscured by no cloud, when clear and transparent air allows it to shine. For the orbit of the moon remains unaltered, though not in an entirely similar manner, so that a part of it shines forth. And just as it is accustomed to appear when it is full of light, so it is in its magnitude: but it appears deprived of its own light through a certain shadow. And hence its horns shine forth; because its body is spread out in a circle, and as if the light of a portion were failing, it is shown through.

Chapter III.

To be the light of the day is one thing, to be the light of the stars is another. The difference between day and night is marked by two signs, and fire has a dual operation, to illuminate and to burn, which will be separated in the retribution of merits. God is said to be a consuming fire, and the reason why. Finally, every body clings to its own shadow.

Moreover, it can be moved, as it says: Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens to separate the day from the night (Gen. 1:14). For also earlier, when he made the light, God had said, \"Let there be a separation among light and darkness.\" And there was evening, and there was morning, one day. But let us consider that the light of the day is different from the light of the sun and moon, and the light of the stars, because the sun itself seems to add its brightness to the daylight with its rays, which can reveal either the rising or the setting of the day. For before the sun shines indeed, but the day does not shine brightly; because it shines even more with the midday sun. This is shown by the Prophet, saying: And he will bring forth your justice as the light, and your judgment as the noonday (Ps. XXXVI, 6). For he compared the saint's justice not only to light, but also to the midday light.

9. Then he desired not only one sign, but also two, of daylight and of night: so that day might be made by the light's discrimination, and by the dawning of the sun; and again the failing of light and the uprising of stars might distinguish nightfall from day, and the beginning of night. For when the sun sets, yet somewhat of the day remains, until darkness cover the earth: and then follows the rising of the moon and the stars. And from the night indeed it is clear, that lunar and stellar illumination testifies to the spaces of night. Indeed, during the day that lunar radiance, and the rising sun, hide all the stars. Moreover, the sun itself can teach us about the different nature of daylight and the sun, and that it appears discolored. For the species of light is simple; it produces light. But indeed, the sun has not only the power to illuminate, but also to heat; for it is fiery. Fire both illuminates and burns. Therefore, the Lord, desiring to show Moses the miracle of His operation, by which He would provoke Moses to strive for obedience and inflame his desire for faith, appeared in fire in the bush, and the bush was not consumed, but only seemed to shine with the appearance of fire. Therefore, one duty was to be empty (vacabat) of burning, while the other was to be active (operabatur). The duty of burning involved the power of consuming, while the duty of illuminating involved the power of shining. That is why Moses was amazed, because the fire did not burn the bush against its nature, which typically burns even more flammable material. But the fire of the Lord is accustomed to illuminate, not to burn.

But perhaps you say: How is it written: I am a consuming fire (Deut., IV, 24)? You have rightly admonished. It does not usually consume, except sins alone. In the same way, the nature of fire is divided in terms of retributive merits; it illuminates some, it burns others. It illuminates the righteous, it burns the wicked. Those it illuminates, it does not burn; and those it burns, it illuminates. But its illumination is unquenchable for the completion of the good, its burning is intense for the punishment of sins.


11. But let us return to the cycle of day and night. With the rising light of day, night flees; with the setting of the day, night comes. There is no fellowship between light and darkness, for the Lord established this by natural law in His first work. Indeed, when He created light, He also created the distinction between light and darkness. In the course of the day itself, when the sun is already shining upon the earth, we see the shadow of a man or of a tree separate from the light, moving towards the West in the morning, turning back towards the East in the evening, and inclining towards the North during the midday hours. However, it does not confuse or mix with the light, but retreats and moves away. Similarly, night seems to give way to day, and to decline from its light; for, as more experienced people have demonstrated to us who have gone ahead of us in age or office, the shadow of the earth naturally clings to and attaches itself to the body, so much so that even painters endeavor to depict the shadows of the bodies they have painted, and they assert that it is a skill of art not to interrupt the force of nature; and it is as if someone who violates natural law, whose painting does not even express its own shadow. Therefore, just as during the day when a body comes into the path of the sun, from the side where the light is reflected, a shadow is cast, so when the day recedes and an object is encountered in the direction of its light or the sun, the air is shaded. Hence it is clear that shadows make night on the Earth.

Chapter IV.

Luminaries have been made into signs, but not of birth. The knowledge of mathematicians is useless and impossible. How ineptly it transfers the properties of terrestrial animals to celestial ones, and of these to humans. How ridiculously it asserts that the stable state of life depends on erratic signs. How impiously it attributes qualities to them that harm the innocent. How foolishly it finally presents clearly false things and supplies an excuse for malice and inertia.


12. Therefore, He made the sun, and the moon, and the stars, and established for them the measures of time, the daily courses of the sun, the nightly courses of the moon and the stars, so that the sun may increase the grace of the day, and they may illuminate the shade and darkness. And let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and for years (Gen., I, 14). The divided times have equal measurements for the monthly cycles of the sun and the moon with the stars, and they are for signs. We cannot deny that some signs are gathered from the sun and the moon; for the Lord Himself also said: And there will be signs in the sun, and in the moon, and in the stars (Luke XXI, 25). And when the Apostles asked for a sign of his coming, he answered: The sun shall be darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and the stars shall fall from heaven (Matthew, XXIV, 29). He said these things would be the signs of the coming end: but it is fitting that the measure of our care be observed.

13. Finally, some have attempted to determine the qualities of the future based on one's birth, which is not only pointless but also useless for those seeking and promising this impossibility. For what could be more useless than each person convincing themselves that they are meant to be what they were born as? Therefore, no one should change their life, status, or habits and strive to become better, but rather remain in this belief. Neither can you praise the virtuous nor condemn the wicked, who appear to respond to the necessity of their birth. And how does the Lord propose rewards to the good and punishments to the wicked, if necessity determines discipline and guides the movement of the stars? And what else is it but to strip man of man if nothing is left of morals, education, or pursuits? How many people do we see, once guilty of crimes and sins, now converted to a better state! The Apostles were redeemed and gathered from sinners: not at the hour of their birth, but the coming of Christ sanctified them, and the hour of the Lord's passion redeemed them from death. The condemned thief, the one who was crucified with the Lord, passed to eternal paradise not by the benefit of his birth, but by the confession of his faith. Jonah did not escape the sea by the power of his birth, but by the hidden divine command he was thrown overboard, and a whale received him, vomited him out after three days as a sign of future mystery, and reserved him by the merit of prophetic grace. The angel of Christ saved Peter from impending death in prison, not by the order of the stars. A little blindness turned to grace, and being struck by a snake, and being troubled by shipwreck, their own merits of devotion, not the remedies of birth, saved them. What shall we say about those who, by their prayers, rose again from death? Did their own birth or the apostolic grace revive them? What need was there for them to commit themselves to fasts and dangers, if they could have attained the benefit of birth wherever they wanted? But if they had believed, while they waited for the necessity of fate, they would never have attained such great grace. Therefore, that belief is useless.

14. What about the fact that it is also impossible? For let us take something from their discussion, for the sake of refutation, not persuasion: they say that nativity has a great power, and that it should be inferred from certain precise moments; and unless it is inferred more accurately, it signifies a great difference. For the nativities of the poor and the wealthy, the needy and the rich, the innocent and the guilty, are said to differ by a short atom, a small moment; and often at the same hour, long life is born and childhood dies, if the remaining differences are unequal and distinct by a certain point. In order to collect this, let them answer. Determine the birth of a woman; when the midwife first recognizes it, she investigates the cry by which the life of the newborn is gathered, she observes whether it is a male or a female. How many moments do you think pass besides these delays? Put forth a prepared mathematician. Can a man participate in childbirth? While the midwife is carrying out her duties, the Chaldean listens, sets the horoscope; the fates of one newborn have already migrated to another, the fate of the other is being sought, and the birth of the other is proposed. Put their true opinion about the necessities of birth, it cannot be a true collection. Points pass, time flies irreparably. There is no doubt that time is in an atom and in the blink of an eye. I am led to believe, when we are all resurrected in an atom, in a moment, in the blink of an eye, as the Apostle testifies saying: Behold, I tell you a mystery: We shall all indeed rise again; but we shall not all be changed, in an atom, in the blink of an eye, at the last trumpet: for the trumpet will sound, and the dead shall rise incorruptible, and we shall be changed (I Cor., XV, 52). Among the outpouring, and reception, and deposition of the pledge, among his weeping and the message, how many atoms have passed! And I have simply woven these things together. For they themselves divide the vital twelvefold circuit of signs into twelve parts: and because in thirty days the sun completes the twelfth part of its sphere, which is considered incomprehensible, in order to complete the circuit of the sun's year, they divide it into thirty portions, which the Greeks call μοίρας, and they distribute each one of those portions into twelve divisions; they also divide that portion into sixty parts. Once again, each of those sixty-sixty times divides. How incomprehensible it is that the sixtieth portion of the sixtieth moment of birth constitutes, and who the movement or appearance of each sign is in the birth of the newborn! Therefore, since it is impossible to comprehend such subtle minutiae of time, and yet a small alteration brings about a universal error, the whole task is full of vanity. The disputants of what is their own do not know how they know what is foreign? They do not know what is imminent for them, how they can announce to others what is to come for themselves? It is ridiculous to believe that, because if they could, they would provide for themselves first.

15. Now, how foolish is it that if someone says they were born under the sign of Aries, they should be considered the most excellent in advice because they stand out in a flock of such animals, or richer because they have a natural wool and make a profit from selling it every year, and their familiar possessions seem to be sources of income! Similarly, they argue about the signs of Taurus and Pisces, that the movements of the heavens and the interpretation of signs can determine the powers of lowly animals. Therefore, food provides for our living, and our nourishment, that is, sheep, cattle, and fish, imprint the customs of behavior upon us. Therefore, how do they call forth for us the reasons of things and the substance of this life from the heavens, when those same celestial signs impart the causes of their own movement from the qualities of cheap food? They say that one born under the sign of Aries is generous, because the ram willingly sheds its fleece: and they prefer to attribute this power of a cheap animal to nature rather than to the heavens, from which both serenity shines upon us and rain often descends. They are diligent and patient in their service, which the bull looks upon at their birth, because the hardworking animal willingly submits its neck to the yoke of voluntary servitude. Also the archer, whose birth is accompanied by the scorpion in its own constellation, and vomits forth the poisons of malice, because it is a venomous animal. So why do you claim authority for your way of life by pretending to the dignity of celestial signs, and take as evidence for your argument certain trivial matters? For if the characteristics of such customs are impressed by the movements of the heavens onto animals, and it seems that they are subject to the power of a beastly nature, from which they received the causes of vital substance to impart to humans. But if this is contrary to the truth, much more ridiculous is it to summon belief in their argumentation, being devoid of support from the truth.

16. Then let us consider that which they call the planets, of which they claim our life's necessities are formed by their movements. Therefore, whether, as the name implies, they always wander, or, as they themselves say, they are carried by swift motion and change their varied appearance in their countless revolutions ten thousand times a day, it lacks credibility that they determine for us the fixed and immovable substance of living, and our destiny, in such a wandering and rapid error. They say, however, that the movements of all [celestial bodies] are not equal, but that some have faster, and others slower, revolutions; so that in the same hour they often see each other, and often hide, while one passes by another.

However, they say that it matters a great deal whether the born receive beneficial signs or malevolent and harmful ones; and in this is the difference of the birth, that the aspect of beneficial signs contributes greatly, while malevolent and harmful ones cause the most harm. For in this way, they have accustomed themselves to call the same signs that they worship. For I must necessarily use their names, whose assertions I use, lest their arguments be remembered as unknown rather than refuted and destroyed. And so, when they cannot grasp his wandering and swift movement, it often happens that they attribute to that subtlety the appearance of a beneficial sign, when a heavy and harmful offense is about to occur. And why is it surprising if people are deceived there, where harmless signs are blasphemed? And if these signs are believed to be harmful by nature, then the highest God is thus accused, if he made what is evil, and was the operator of wickedness. But if indeed they are thought to have assumed voluntarily what harms the innocent and those who are still unaware of any wicked deed, to whom punishment is assigned before guilt; what can be more irrational, surpassing even the savagery of irrational beasts, than to attribute the use of fraud or favor to men who do not deserve it, but rather to the movements of the stars? 'He committed no offense,' it is said, 'but a harmful star came upon him.' The planet Saturn encountered him: it turned away for a moment, took away his trouble, and absolved him of the crime.


18. But their wisdom is compared to the web of a spider, into which if a gnat or fly falls, it cannot free itself; but if it seems that any stronger kind of creature has fallen into it, it passes through, breaks the weak snares, and dissipates the empty traps. Such are the nets of the Chaldeans, that the weak get entangled in them, while those with stronger senses are unable to be offended. Therefore, you who are stronger, when you see the mathematicians, say: They have woven a spider's web, which can have no use or bonds if you do not fall into it as if you were a gnat or fly by the slip of your weakness: but as if you were a sparrow or dove, with the swiftness of your flight, you destroy the weak snares. For who among the wise would believe that the movements of the stars, which often change and recur in many ways, bear the insignia of power? For if it were so, how many royal births would be indicated by the stars each day? Therefore, kings would be born daily and the succession of the royal power would not be passed on to sons, but rather they would always arise from a different state, acquiring the right to imperial rule. So, who then determines the birth of a king's offspring, if the power is owed to him, and does not transfer the succession of the kingdom to his own descendants by his own decision? We read that Abia begot Asa, and Asa begot Josaphat, and Josaphat begot Joram, and Joram begot Oziam (Matthew, I, 7 et 8); and so on, the succession through the kings of the same royal lineage and honor extends until the captivity. But just because they were kings, could they control their movements by celestial signs? For who among men can have dominion over these things?

Then, if they refer to the genital necessity, not to the established customs of our actions and deeds, why have laws been proposed, and also promulgated rights, by which punishment is decreed for the wicked, or security is granted to the innocent? Why is pardon not given to the guilty, when, as they themselves say, they have committed wrongs not by their own consent, but out of necessity? Why does the farmer labor and not rather wait to bring in the unlabored fruits into the repositories of the granaries by the privilege of his birth? If someone is born in such a way that wealth flows to them without any effort, surely they should wait for spontaneous income to spring forth from the earth without any sowing. They should not plow the fields with a plow, not bring their hand close to the curved sickle, not undergo the expense of picking the grapes for harvesting, but rather, freely flowing wines should pour out for them without any provocation, and the wild olive berry should sweat oil for them without any pruned branches. They should not be anxious about the danger of crossing the vast sea, nor should the merchant concerned for their own safety, whom a certain lucky chance, as they say, in their idle generative power can let the treasure of wealth fall into their lap. But this is not the opinion of everyone. In fact, the industrious farmer, with his plow pressed down, splits the earth, naked he plows, naked he sows, naked he threshes the toasted grain in the scorching heat of the sun in the field: and the impatient merchant, with the wind blowing, often plows the sea with his gaze. Therefore, condemning their impudence and recklessness, the prophet says: Be ashamed, O Sidon; the sea has spoken (Isaiah 23:4), that is, if dangers do not move you, let shame suppress, let modesty confound. Blush, Sidon, in which there is no place for virtue, no concern for salvation, no young men dedicated to the defense of their country in war, trained in arms, but rather all worry is about profit, all effort is for trade. 'The seed of merchants,' it is said, 'is like a harvest.' (Ibid., 3) But what reward does a Christian man have if he arranges his cares and works not according to his own will, but out of necessity? For where there is a decreed necessity, there is dishonored industry.

Chapter V.

The duration and frequency of annual storms are determined by the proximity or distance of the atmosphere: which is adapted to Christ, the Synagogue, and the Church. Why are shadows longer in winter and shorter in summer; and various other things of this kind. Finally, how the same luminaries are present every day.


20. We have said many things, we do not want to say more; lest anyone think that the things which are used by us to refute and examine their assertions have been assumed. For the things which we laughed at as boys, can we, as old men, recall them? Now let us direct our pen to the remaining things according to the reading.

There are, he says, lights in the signs, and in the seasons, and in the days, and in the years. We have spoken about the signs. But what are the seasons, if not the changes of winter, spring, summer, and autumn? Therefore, in these seasons, either the transit of the sun is faster, or slower. For it dazzles with its rays in some, while it inflames with its heat in others. Thus, when the sun lingers in the southern parts, it is winter for us. For when the sun is further away, the earth freezes with frost, is tightened by cold, and the abundant shadow of the night covers the earth, so that the spaces of the night are much longer than those of the day. From this arises the reason that an excessive force of snow and rain is brought about by winter winds. But when it returns from the southern regions and rises above the earth, it equalizes the times of night and day. And the more it adds delays to its courses, the more it gradually reduces the temperature of this air and brings back the mildness of the breezes, which, nurturing all things, compels them to be born again, so that the earth may bear fruit, and the seeds, released from the furrows, may revive, and the trees may grow, and the succession of annual offspring may be propagated for the perpetuation of their species, whether on land or in water. But when it rises towards the summer solstice in the North, it extends the daylight hours and shortens the nights. And so, the more it is constantly connected to and mixed with this air, the more it vaporizes the air itself, and dries up the moisture of the earth, causing the seeds to grow, and the fruits of the forests to mature as if into strong juices. Then, because it is more intense, it casts smaller shadows at noon, since it illuminates this place from above.


22. And so the Synagogue says in the Song of Songs: Tell me, O Christ, whom my soul loves, where you feed, where you rest at noon, lest I become adorned with the flocks of your companions (Cant. I, 6). Why not rather whom you love? But the Synagogue loved, the Church loves, and never changes her affection towards her Christ. Where, she says, do you feed, where do you rest at noon. I desire to follow you as a foster child, whom I held tightly before as if joined, and to seek your flocks, for I have lost mine. You pasture at midday, that is, in the place of the Church, where justice shines forth, where judgment shines like noonday, where shadow is not seen, where the days are longer, so that the sun of righteousness may linger there longer, like in the summer months. Finally, the day of the Lord is not short, but great; for it is written: Until the great day of the Lord comes (Joel. II, 31). And Jacob also says: All the days of my life that I have lived are short and miserable (Gen. XLVII, 9). For the light is an uncertain evil. Therefore, the short days are days of uncertain and shady light: the great days are without shade, as many have experienced in some warmer places and have learned by example. So, the synagogue, in its short and miserable days, which Jacob often represents in his own person, had a lot of shade, which did not see the sun of righteousness, but saw it shining not from above his head, but from the south, when it was winter for him. But the Church is said: Winter is gone, it has departed for itself, flowers have been seen on the earth, the time of harvest has come. (Song of Solomon, II, 11). Before the coming of Christ there was winter, after the coming of Christ there are the flowers of spring, and the harvest of summer. Therefore, seeing Him shining from the south and from the conversion of the Gentiles, they are overshadowed. But the people of the Gentiles, who were in confusion, the Gentiles who sat in darkness, saw a great light, those who sat in the region of the shadow of death, a light has arisen for them. Great light of divinity, which no shadow of death interrupts. And therefore it illuminates from above, as it is written, as Zacharias says: In which the rising sun from on high has visited us: to illuminate those who sit in darkness and the shadow of death (Luke 1:78-79). There is indeed a shadow of salvation, not of death, as it is written: Protect me under the shadow of your wings (Psalm 17:8). It is a shadow indeed, because of the body; a shadow, because of the cross, but a shadow of salvation, because in it there was forgiveness of sins and the resurrection of the dead.


23. Therefore, we can take an example: because winter days are short, but they have longer shadows; summer days are longer, but they have shorter shadows. Also, the shadow is shorter at noon than at the beginning or end of the day; and this is the case with us in the western part. However, there are those who, for two days of the entire year, have no shadow in the southern parts, because they are illuminated from all sides by the sun above their heads, hence they are called 'ἄσκιοι' in Greek. Many people also report that the sun appears to rise from the deep, shining through a narrow opening in a well. They are said to be in the Southern Hemisphere, called 'ἀμφίσκιοι', because they cast a shadow on both sides. The shadow is behind those who walk towards the rising sun; for example, if you travel east in the morning. If you go against the midday sun, it is in the south; if you go towards the setting sun, it is in the west. Therefore, the sun is visible to you from three directions: from the east, from the south, and from the west. In the morning and evening, it is behind you, and at noon, it is also to the side. But the sun is never in the north, and therefore, if you direct your shadow towards the north, whether in the morning, evening, or noon, it cannot be behind you. For there are only those positioned around the south in this region of the earth that we inhabit, who seem to cast a shadow towards the southern region. However, this is said to happen in the peak of summer, when the sun is directed towards the North. Afterwards, autumn receives us, indeed breaking the intensity of the summer: but with the heat temporarily relaxed and dissipated, through the mildness of moderate weather, without deceit and harm, it delivers us to the wintry blasts.

He says that they also exist for the sake of the days. Not in order to make the days, but so that they may have dominion in them, so that the rising sun may illuminate the day with abundant grace, so that it may have the power to mark its course throughout the entire day. This is how some understand what the prophet says: 'The sun to have dominion over the day, the moon and the stars to have dominion over the night' (Psalm 135:8). For they carry the light around. The sun and the moon are also ordered by years: the moon completes its course in 354 days, according to the Jews, with a few additional days; according to the Romans, it is celebrated twice in the sixth month once every five years with the addition of one day. The solstice year is also when the sun, having completed its circuit through all the signs, returns to the point where it began its course. For it is said that it completes a full cycle of the entire space each year.

Chapter VI.

The magnitude of the sun and moon is proven by the fact that they appear the same to everyone. The objection is resolved and a beautiful discussion about the appearance of distant objects follows: once the magnitude of the sun has been asserted, some remarks are added about its temperament.

25. Therefore God made these two great lights. We can understand them to be great not only in comparison to other things, but also by their own function, as the great sky and the great ocean. For the great sun, which fills the earth with its heat, and the moon with its light, not only illuminate the lands, but also this air and sea, and the face of the sky. Wherever they are in the sky, they illuminate everything and are seen equally by all; so that no people believe that these lights reside only in their own regions, and only exist and shine for themselves; since they shine in the same way for all, so that no one thinks that one light is closer to them than another. An example of their size is evident, as the same appearance of the moon is seen by all people on Earth. For although its light may sometimes increase or decrease, it appears the same to me and to everyone else during the night; for if it appeared smaller to those who are far away, it would shine brighter to those who are closer, and it would reveal an indication of its narrowness and smallness. Indeed, we consider other objects that are far away to be smaller, and we believe them to be larger when we observe them up close; the closer you are, the more the size of what you perceive is magnified. The radius of the sun is closer to none and farther from none; similarly, the globe of the moon is equal to all. The sun appears the same to both the Indians and the Britons at the same moment when it rises. Neither when it sets, does it appear smaller to the Easterners than to the Westerners; nor, when it rises to the Westerners, is it considered lower than to the Easterners. How far, he asks, is the East from the West (Ps. CII, 12)? These things are distant from each other in turn. But the sun is distant from none, closer to none, and farther from none.


26. And let it not bother you that, when it rises, the sun appears to you as the size of a fist: but consider how much space there is between the sun and the earth, which our weak vision cannot pass without great loss to itself. Our vision becomes dim, does the sun become dim, or the moon? Our sight is limited, does that make the things we see smaller? The appearance is diminished, not the size taken away. For we should not attribute the weaknesses of our vision to the luminaries themselves. Our appearance deceives: therefore do not estimate the judgment of it as faithful. The form of the heavenly bodies is smaller than the spectacle, not its own. If you desire to see a plain subject from the highest peak of mountains, and there grazing herds, will you not judge their bodies as resembling ants? If you look at the sea from some lookout of the shore, will not the largest ships among the blue waves, and the shining sails appear as if they cover the appearance of flying doves from a distance? What about those very islands that divide the sea, separate the lands, which are considered to be enclosed by a narrow boundary? How do they appear round from rough things, thick from sparse ones? So consider these weaknesses of your sight; and call upon yourself, as a just judge, the evidence of what we assert.

27. If you want to estimate the magnitude of the sun, not only with the eye of the mind, but also with the body, consider how many spheres of stars seem to be woven into the axis of the sky and adorned with countless lights; yet they cannot dispel the darkness of night or clear the clouds of the sky. As soon as the sun has sent forth its signs of its rising, all the fires of the stars vanish under the brilliance of the one luminary, the air opens up, and the face of the sky is suffused with a reddish purple blush. While still breathing its beginning, and now with the momentary swiftness of full light, the gleaming spark moves, and the sweet breeze precedes the rising sun. Tell me, please, if the world were not vast, how could it illuminate the great sphere of the earth?

28. But what can I say about the such great restraint and moderation of the creator, who assigned to it the measure of the sun's function; so that neither its fiery vapor, as it seems, would consume the veins of the earth, its juices, and the forms of things infused, nor, cooled again over such vast spaces of the world, would it endure any seed of heat in the earth, but leaving it barren and needy of fruits, it might not pour forth any grace of fertility?

Chapter VII.

Many things that are said about the sun also apply to the moon; however, the moon also has its own effects, some of which are listed here.

29. Similar things apply to the moon's cycle, as we mentioned regarding its companion and brother. Indeed, it undertakes the same ministry as its brother: to illuminate the darkness, nurture the seeds, and increase the fruits. It also has many things distinct from its brother; for example, what the heat of the sun dries out from the earth during the whole day, the same is replenished by the dew in a short time of the night; for the moon itself is said to bring abundant dew. Finally, when the night is clear and the moon shines throughout, then a more generous dew is said to be carried to drench the fields. And many, lying under the open sky, felt that the more they were under the light of the moon, the more they accumulated moisture in their heads. Hence, in the Song of Songs, Christ says to the Church: 'For my head is filled with dew, and my hair with the drops of the night' (Song of Songs 5:2). Then it diminishes and increases, so that it is smaller when it rises anew, and when it is diminished, it accumulates. In this is a great mystery. For the elements also sympathize with its defect: and as it decreases, the things that were emptied out during its course are accumulated, like the brains of animals and the moisture of the sea creatures. Since it is said that fuller oysters are found and many other things when the moon is waxing. The same is also alleged about the inner parts of trees by those who have discovered this by their own experience. Therefore, we see that its rising and waning is a matter of reason, not weakness. For it would never give such a great change to things unless it possessed excellent power and grace conferred by its creator.

Some learned and Christian men have also stated that the air is known to change at the rising of the moon: but if this change were brought about by some violent disturbance, the whole sky would be covered with clouds and rain would pour down at all parts of the horizon. Finally, although we were eager for rain, I did not want such statements to be true. Finally, I was delighted because there was no rain; until, through the prayers of the Church, it was revealed that we should not hope for it from the beginning of the moon, but from the providence and mercy of the Creator. Indeed, when the Euxine Sea overflows on all sides according to the other phases of the moon, it collects and returns the waves received, or even carries them with great force; however, at its rising, it is calm until the moon is without light. But when the return of its days reveals it, then its course turns back in reverse. Moreover, it is said that the tide, which is known to exist in the Ocean, is said to maintain its regular cycle with the other days, but it is said to give a clear indication of its change with the rising of the moon; so that the very western sea, in which the tide is observed, approaches and recedes more than usual, and is carried by a greater tide, as if it were being pulled backwards by certain aspirations of the moon, and then, pushed and pulled again, it returns to its own measure.

Chapter VIII.

The change of the moon teaches the instability of things: but it is shamefully expressed in our morals. It represents the mystery of Christ and the Church: which those who believe can be taken from the sky by magical chants, are to be ridiculed.

31. So if you wonder how the moon can undergo changes, even though it has such a powerful capacity for transformation, consider this great mystery: by her example you come to know, O man, that there is nothing of human and worldly nature, nothing in the entire created order, that does not at some point dissolve. For even the moon, to whom the Lord entrusted the duty of illuminating the world, waxes and wanes. For everything that has come into existence from nothing and has attained perfection will ultimately diminish once more. Heaven and earth will pass away. Why then do we not adopt moderation, so as not to lose heart in adversity? For the One who made everything out of nothing is also capable of easily raising you to the highest and most perfect state. Likewise, let us not become arrogant in prosperity, nor boast in any power or wealth, nor take pride in physical strength or beauty, for they are susceptible to corruption and frequent change. Let us instead seek to maintain the grace of the soul, which endures into the future. For if the setting of the moon saddens you, which always repairs and transforms itself; much more should it sadden you if your soul, having been filled with the progress of virtue, afterwards frequently changes its pursuits due to the fickleness of the mind and negligence, which is foolishness and ignorance. Hence the Scripture says: 'A fool is changed like the moon' (Ecclesiasticus 27:12). And therefore the wise man is not changed like the moon; but he will remain like the sun. Where the moon is not a partaker of folly; for the moon does not change like a fool, but the fool changes like the moon. Indeed, the seed of the righteous remains perfect like the eternal moon, and is a faithful witness in the sky. For it is one thing to serve by duty, another to be carried by talent, and to not have a fixed opinion due to the weakness of the senses. The moon labors for you, and is subject to the will of God. For vanity, the creature is subject not willingly, but because of the one who subjected it in hope. Therefore, she is not changed willingly: you are changed willingly. She groans and endures in her own change: you do not understand, and you often rejoice. She frequently awaits your redemption, so that she may be freed from the common servitude of all creation: you bring hindrance to both your redemption and her liberty. Therefore, it is your, not her, foolishness that while you wait and do not convert, she is still changing.


32. Therefore, do not estimate the moon with the eye of your body, but with the vivacity of your mind. The moon diminishes in order to fill the elements. This is truly a great mystery. It was given to him who has given grace to all. He emptied it in order to fill the one who also emptied himself, in order to fill all. For he emptied himself in order to descend to us; he descended to us in order to ascend to all. For, as it is written, 'He ascended above all heavens in order to fill all things' (Ephesians 4:10). Therefore, he who came in emptiness filled the apostles with his fullness. Hence one of them says: For from his fullness we have all received (John 1:16). Therefore, the moon announced the mystery of Christ. Not insignificant is the sign that he placed: not insignificant is the symbol that the beloved Church possesses, which the Prophet signifies when he says: righteousness and abundance of peace will arise in his days, until the moon is taken away (Psalm 72:7). And in the Song of Songs, the Lord says of his bride: Who is she that looks forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun (Song of Songs 6:9)? And fittingly is the Church fair as the moon, which has shone forth in the whole world, and, illuminating the darkness of this age, says: The night has gone, the day has come near (Romans 13:12). Well does he say, Looking forth, as if looking down upon his own from on high, as you have: The Lord looked down from heaven on the sons of men (Psalm 14:2). Therefore, looking at the Church, just as the moon has frequent waxings and wanings: but it has grown through its defects, and has deserved to be enlarged by them, while it is diminished by persecutions and crowned by the martyrdoms of confessors. This is the true moon, which borrows perpetual light of eternal life and grace from the light of its brother. For the Church shines not by its own, but by the light of Christ; and it draws its splendor from the sun of righteousness, so that it may say: I no longer live, but Christ lives in me (Galatians 2:20). Truly blessed are you, who have deserved such a great honor! I would call you blessed not because of your own merits, but because of the Church's designation. For in those servants, you are loved; in this, you are cherished.

33. How ridiculous it is, however, that people mostly believe that you can be led by magic spells! Those are old women's tales and popular beliefs. For who would think that the work of God can be tested by Chaldean superstitions? It is a mistake for someone to transform themselves into an angel of light and be led by their own will, not by the power of spells. Certainly, you also seem to think that you can be led away from your place and station as if you were the Church. The Church is multi-tentacled: but the spells of sorcery cannot harm it. The enchanters are powerless where the song of Christ is sung daily. It has its own enchanter, the Lord Jesus, through whom he has disarmed the enchanting spells of the magicians and expelled the venom of the serpents. And just as the exalted serpent devours the serpents of the Egyptians, so the deadly spell, though it may mutter, is rendered powerless in the name of Christ. Thus Paul not only blinded the magician Elymas with the infirmity of his sorcery, but also deprived him of sight. Thus Peter, by a high flight of magic, brought down and overthrew Simon seeking the heights of heaven, his power of incantations being dissolved.

Chapter IX.

Conclusion of the fourth day. How futile it is to beware of him; and from where the offense of demons and pagans is derived against him.

34. Beautifully, as I believe, the fourth day has passed. So how then do most people usually take care on the fourth, and think it useless to start anything with this number, with which the whole world emerged with new light? Or did the sun begin with sinister omens? And how can it be a good omen for others, who did not know how to choose the day of their own rising? Or how do they approve the signs of someone whose rising they do not approve? What do we even say about the moon, which began on the fourth day and marks the fourteenth day of salvation? Does the number by which the mystery of redemption is celebrated displease them? Therefore, demons persuade that number to be avoided, by which their wickedness is destroyed. Therefore, the gentiles assert that nothing is to be worshiped; because they know that it was then that their arts began to become void, and the gentile peoples migrated to the Church. Certainly, they believe that if the moon is in its fourth quarter, pure and without dull horns, it is a sign of serenity to be given on other days until the end of the month. Therefore, they do not want to begin with the same beginnings with which serenity begins. But now we must be careful that the fourth day does not pass us by in conversation; for the shadows grow larger from the mountains, the light diminishes, and the shadows accumulate.

Book Five. Of the Work of the Fifth Day.

Chapter I. (Sermo VII.)

Having adorned the previous two elements, the sea is granted its own prerogative. The obedience of the waters is described, as well as their astonishing fertility, which humans abuse by consuming what is forbidden. Finally, it is shown that reptiles are not only called serpents, but also fish.


1. The earth, adorned with various seeds, was green with all things; the sky also, with the sun and the moon, shone with their twin lights, and was adorned with the beauty of the stars. The third element remained, namely the sea; so that it too might receive the grace of life-giving divine gift. For by the ethereal spirit, all the offspring of the earth are nourished. The earth, also releasing seeds, gives life to everything: and especially then, for the first time, by the command of God's word, it began to grow green, sprouting forth by the gift of its own life-giving power. He needed water, and by the grace of divine operation, he seemed to receive a blessed benefit. The Creator still has something to offer him, by which he may be able to equal the duties of the earth: he reserved for him, so that he, too, might claim something of his own and special from the bestowed privilege of the duty conferred upon him. The earth was brought to life first, but those things which did not have a breathing soul were brought forth. Water is commanded to produce those things which would excel in the vigor and dignity of a living soul, and to receive the sense of preserving salvation and avoiding death.


So God said, 'Let the waters bring forth reptiles with living souls according to their kind, and flying creatures flying above the ground according to their kind following the expanse of the sky.' (Gen. I, 20). The command came, and suddenly water was poured out, giving birth to rivers, animating lakes, the sea itself began to give birth to various kinds of reptiles, and according to their kind, it poured out whatever it had formed. Not even the deep abysses or muddy swamps were left empty, as everything took on the power that had been given to them to create. The fish were exiled from the river, the dolphins were playing in the waves, the shells were clinging to the rocks, the oysters were sticking to the depths, and the sea urchins were growing. Woe is me! Before man, temptation began, the abundance of resources, the mother of our excesses. Before man, pleasures. Therefore, temptation came before nature for humans: but nature committed no fault; it provided sustenance, not vices. It gave these things in common, so that you could not claim anything as your own. The earth produces its fruits for you; the rivers yield their harvest to you; and all creatures generate their offspring for you; and yet, not satisfied with these, you tasted forbidden food. All things are accumulated for your envy, so that the weight of your greedy transgression may burden you.

3. But we cannot describe how many species and names there are, which are all animated by a divine inspiration in an instant. At the same time, the form of the body united with the soul, and the vital energy of the remaining power also operated. The earth was filled with plants, the sea with living creatures. There, imperceptible things were sprouting, here perceptible things were turning. Even on the land, water claims its own portions. Fish of the waters lick the earth, and seek their prey from it. Mosquitoes and frogs also make noise around the reproductive swamps, and they themselves heard the command of the Lord saying: Let the waters bring forth living creatures.

4. We know that reptiles are called the kind of serpents, because they crawl on the ground; but much more so, anything that swims, has the ability or the nature to crawl. For even though they seem to split the water when they plunge into the deep; nevertheless, when they float on the surface, they crawl with their whole body, which they drag on certain backs of the waters. Therefore, David also says: This is the great and wide sea, there are reptiles of which there is no number (Ps. 103, 25). Even though many of them have feet and are capable of walking, because they are amphibious creatures that live both in water and on land, like seals, crocodiles, and river horses, which are called hippos because they are born in the Nile River; nevertheless, when they are in the deep waters, they do not walk but swim, and they do not use their footprints to move forward, but rather they use their fins to crawl. Just as a ship glides when propelled by oars, and the hull cuts through the water.

Chapter II.

By the power of this voice, aquatic reptiles are produced, much more in the sea than on land; and this grace is added to the waters, that what is harmful on land is harmless in the sea.

5. God said, 'Let the waters bring forth reptiles.' Brief, but powerful, and widely spreading, He infused a common nature into the smallest and largest creatures. In the same moment, the whale is produced as the frog is born from the same force of operation. God does not labor in the greatest things, nor does He disdain the smallest. Nature does not grieve when giving birth to dolphins, just as it does not grieve when producing tiny mussels and snails. Take note, O man, how many more things there are in the sea than on land. If you can count, there are numerous species of fish, both small and large, cuttlefish, octopuses, crustaceans, crabs, and countless others of their kind. What about the various species of snakes, dragons, moray eels, and eels? And let's not forget scorpions, frogs, turtles, weasels, and sea dogs, sea calves, huge whales, dolphins, seals, and lions. Shall I also mention blackbirds, thrushes, and even peacocks, whose colors we see depicted in birds, such as blackbirds with black feathers, thrushes with different colored backs and necks, and thrushes with various colored bellies, and so on, which have their own land species and names? For first of all those things began in the sea, and in divers rivers. For the water, by the divine commandment, brought forth the living creatures that swim.

6. Add to this grace that those things which we fear on land, we love in water. For what is harmful on land is harmless in water, and even snakes are without venom. The lion is terrifying on land, but sweet in the waves. The moray, which they say has something harmful, is a more precious food. The frightening frog in marshes is beautiful in water, and surpasses almost all other foods. If anyone wants to know more, let them ask different fishermen from different places; for no one can comprehend everything. Certainly beware of dogs, whom the Apostle teaches are annoying and to be avoided in the Church, saying: Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers (Phil. 3:2). The heavy smell of a weasel is pleasant underground and in water. Earthly vengeance knows how to avenge the stench: it has no less charm when captured than when free. Nor will I leave you dishonored, O thymalum, by our prosecution, to whom a name has grown from the flower: whether the water of the Ticino river or the water of the pleasant Adige river has nourished you, you are a flower. Finally, a saying affirms that regarding someone who emanates a pleasant fragrance, it is said wittily: Either he smells of fish or he smells of flowers; thus, it is expressed that the smell of a fish is the same as the smell of a flower. What is more attractive than your appearance? What is more delightful than your sweetness? What is more fragrant than your scent? Just as honey is fragrant, so do you emit it with your own body. What can I say about the tenderness of crows and even of wolves? The lamb does not fear these wolves. Such is the grace of the waters, that their calves and lions flee from them, so that this prophetic saying about the sanctity of the Church rightly applies to them: Then wolves and lambs will graze together, and lions and oxen will eat straw together (Esa. LXV, 25). No wonder, since even in the Church, water works in the same way, that the washed-away wickedness of the thieves is compared with the innocence. And why should I not mention the purple, which adorns the banquets of kings, and taints the garments? Therefore, there is something in water that is worshipped by kings: it is the appearance of water that shines. Add to this, the sea pigs are also pleasing to the Jews; because there is nothing common that water does not wash away, and therefore they cannot consider them as common, who are born on the land.

Chapter III.

There is a manifold method of generating fish, and a singular sense of piety towards their offspring. How great is their purity, by which they not only surpass other animals, but even human beings themselves.


There are countless uses and countless species of fish. Some lay eggs, which they call different names according to their size, and entrust them to be nurtured by the waters. Therefore, water gives life and creates, and still carries out the task of that first command as if it were a perpetual law, being a kind mother to animals. Others give birth to live offspring from their own bodies, like weasels, and little dogs, and huge sea creatures like dolphins and seals, and other similar animals. When they give birth, if by chance they sense any plots or threats around their young, they open their mouths, and with harmless teeth suspend their young, holding them inside their body and hiding them in their genital pouch. What human feeling can imitate this fish's compassion? Kisses satisfy us; for them, it is not enough to open their bellies and receive and revive their newborns, nourishing them with a kind of warmth and feeding their spirit, and allowing two to live in one body until they either find safety or protect their young by offering their own body as a shield from danger. Who seeing these things, though they may be able to possess them, would not yield to such devotion to the fish? Who would not marvel and be amazed, that nature preserves in fish what it does not preserve in humans? Many, driven by the suspicion and hatred of stepmothers, have killed their own children: others, as we read, have devoured their own offspring in hunger. A mother has become a grave for her human pledges; the womb of fish is like a wall, which preserves the unharmed pledges of internal organs.


Therefore, different species of fish have different uses: some lay eggs, others give birth to live and formed offspring. And those that lay eggs do not build nests like birds, do not endure the labor of long incubation, and do not care for themselves with difficulty. An egg falls, which is gently received by the water as a nurturing mother, and quickly gives birth to a living creature. As soon as it is touched by the parent, the egg comes to life and a fish emerges.


Then there is the pure and untainted succession! No one mixes with another, but each species mates with its own kind, thymallus with thymallus, lupus with lupus. Even Scorpaena preserves the chastity of its immaculate union with its own species. Therefore, it has the modesty of its own kind, but it does not have the poison of its own kind; for Scorpaena does not strike, but it restores. Therefore, the species of alien fish do not know the adulterous contagion, such as those which mate with donkeys and mares, which are committed with great concern by humans; or again, when a horse mates with a donkey, which are true adulteries of nature. For it is certainly a greater offense to commit an act against the harmony of nature than to harm an individual person. And you, a deceitful interpreter of bestial adultery, consider that animal more valuable which is illegitimate rather than that which is true? You confuse different species and mix various seeds, and often force unwilling creatures into forbidden unions, and you call this cleverness! Because you cannot do this with humans, that the mingling of different kinds could produce offspring, you destroy what is naturally born in a man, strip him of his manhood, deny him his gender by cutting off a part of his body, and make him a eunuch; so you fulfill with audacity what nature denies in humans.

Chapter IV.

To teach the mutual dependence of water and fish, and what kind of dependence there should be between parents and children. How water provides fish with the ability to breathe.

Consider how good water is as a mother. You, O man, have taught about the abandonment of fathers by their sons, separations, hatred, offenses; learn what the necessity is between parents and children. Fish cannot live without water, nor can they be separated from the company of their parent, nor can they be distinguished from their foster mother's care; and this happens by a certain nature, that when separated they die immediately. Neither, indeed, do they live by the breath of this air, as all things do, because the nature of drawing in breath and breathing out is not sufficient for them; otherwise they could not always live under water, not having the infusion of breath. What the spirit is to us, water is to them. Just as the spirit serves us as the substance of life-giving, so does water serve them. With the supply of spirit cut off, we cannot remain alive for even a short time without the vital spirit, and we are immediately extinguished. Likewise, fish removed from water cannot exist without the substance of their own life.

11. And the reason is clear, because in us the lung receives breath through the more spacious cavities of the chest; and since it is itself permeable to most pores, it cools the internal heat by the infusion of breath. For just as the chest receives nourishment, so it also separates excess food and healthy juices and distinguishes the blood. The lung becomes permeable, so that the breath can more easily reach it by aspiration. However, fish have gills, which they now fold and gather, now spread out and open. Therefore, in this collection and filtering process, while water is being taken in, transmitted, and penetrating, it seems to fulfill the function of respiration. Therefore, it is the nature of fish, not common with others; a special purpose, and a certain separate and secret substance for living. That is why they are not nourished, nor do they delight in the touch and caress of human hands like terrestrial animals, even if they live in their own ponds.

Chapter V.

Why are the Pisces so well-toothed? They yield to each other in food: which is imitated by the greedy, who are chastised with vigorous reprimands.


12. But what shall I say about the density of teeth? For they do not have teeth on one side like an ox or a sheep: but both sides are armed with teeth; because they are in water, and if they were to turn their food for a long time, and not quickly transmit it, the flood of water could carry away and dilute their food from their teeth. Therefore, they have dense and sharp teeth, so that they can quickly bite, quickly finish their food, and easily and without any delay or hesitation transmit it. Finally, they do not ruminate; however, scarus alone is said to ruminate among them, as some say who have witnessed or experienced it or have studied to understand such things.

Indeed, even they themselves did not escape the violence of their own power, and they are subjugated by the greed of the more powerful everywhere. The weaker one is, the more exposed they are to prey. And many indeed feed on herbs and small worms. Yet there are those who devour each other and feed on their own flesh. Among them, the smaller is the food of the bigger: in turn, the bigger is attacked by the stronger and becomes the prey of another predator. Thus, it has become a practice that when one has devoured another, they are devoured by another, and both come together in one stomach, having been devoured by their own devourer, and they share in one body both the prey and the revenge. And this injury perhaps increased of its own accord, as it did not begin in us by nature, but by greed. Either because they were given for the use of humans, they were also made as a sign, so that in them we would see the faults of our customs, and we would beware of examples; lest anyone, more powerful, would attack someone inferior, giving an example of injury to himself. Therefore, whoever harms another, prepares a snare for himself, into which he himself falls.

And you are a fish, who invades others' entrails, who sinks the weak, who pursues the yielding until the depths. Be careful that while you pursue him, you do not fall yourself into a stronger one, and let him lead you into other people's snares, who avoids his own, and before he sees your suffering, he himself would have been afraid while pursuing his own. What difference is there between a wealthy one devouring the possessions of the weak with the greed of wickedness, and a catfish filled with the intestines of smaller fish? The wealthy man is dead, and his spoils were of no use to him, indeed his own infamy made him more detestable. He was caught like a silurus, and his useless plunder was discovered. How many are found in him who had devoured others? And you, wealthy man, have in your bosom another predator. He possessed the resources of a poor man which he had seized: you, by oppressing him, have added two fortunes to your own resources, and yet you are not satisfied with such an increase; and you say that you have avenged others, when you commit the same things that you avenge, unjust even more unjust, and unfair even more unfair, and greedy even more greedy. See to it that the same end does not find you as that fish: beware of the hook, beware of the nets. But you presume about your own power, that no one can resist you: the catfish presumed the same, that no one would throw a hook at him, no one would set nets for him, and if he got caught, he would break everything apart; and yet, he did not escape the spear or run into the stronger bonds of a net from which he could not free himself. Without a doubt, the more severe the injustices committed by humans, the less their own wickedness can protect them; rather, at some point, what is paid for with the price of wickedness will inevitably be dissolved, which is difficult to avoid.

Chapter VI.

To be a fish: but to find another fish, one good and another bad: but the good should not fear Peter's hook and net.


15. Therefore, you are a fish, o man. Listen, because you are a fish: The kingdom of heaven is like a net cast into the sea, which gathered fish of every kind. But when it was full, they drew it to shore, and sitting down, they chose the good ones into their vessels, but the bad ones they threw away. So it will be at the end of the world. The angels will come out and separate the wicked from the midst of the just, and they will cast them into the furnace of fire (Matt. XIII, 47). So there are both good and bad fish, the good ones are kept for a price, the bad ones are immediately burned. The good fish are not entangled in nets, but are lifted up; nor does the hook kill and destroy them, but it bathes them in the blood of a precious wound, in whose mouth the good price is found, by which the apostolic tribute and the census of Christ are able to be paid. For so it is written, as the Lord says: 'Kings of the earth, from whom do they receive a grain of tribute or census?' From their own children, or from strangers? And answering, Peter said, from strangers. The Lord said: Go to the sea, and cast in a hook, and that fish which shall first come up, take: and when thou hast opened its mouth, thou shalt find a stater: take that, and give it to them for me and thee (Matt. XVII, 24).

16. Therefore, o good fish, do not fear Peter's hook: it does not kill, but consecrates. Do not despise yourself as though you were worthless, because you see a weak body: you have in your mouth that which you may offer for both Peter and Christ. Do not fear Peter's nets, to whom Jesus says: Cast into the deep, and let down your nets. For he sends them not to the left side, but to the right, as Christ commanded. Do not fear his bosom, for it is said to him: From this you shall be a life-giving man. Therefore, he sent out nets and caught Stephen, who was the first to ascend from the Gospel, having on his lips the staff of righteousness. With a steadfast confession, he cried out, saying: Behold, I see the heavens opened and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God. For this fish, the Lord Jesus stood; for he knew that there was the price of his redemption in its mouth. Finally, he fulfilled a glorious martyrdom and Peter's judgement, as well as teaching and the grace of Christ, as a wealthy proclaimer.

Chapter VII.

To mark the sea with the Gospel and the Church, and what a fish should accomplish in the sea. Spouses are urged towards mutual tolerance of character, charity, and faith, by the example of the viper. Why is the same example used on both sides?


17. And do not be moved by the fact that I have placed the Gospel in the sea. The Gospel is the sea in which Christ walked: The Gospel is the sea in which Peter wavered, when he denied; yet through the stronghold of Christ's faith, he found the grace of his station: The Gospel is the sea from which the martyr ascended: The Gospel is the sea in which the apostles fish, in which the net is cast, which is like the kingdom of heaven: The Gospel is the sea in which the mysteries of Christ are portrayed: The Gospel is the sea from which the Hebrew escaped, while the Egyptian was destroyed: The Gospel is the sea, for the Church, the bride of Christ, is the sea, and the fullness of divine grace, which is founded above the seas, as the Prophet said: He founded it above the seas (Psalm 24:2). Exile over the waves, O man, because you are a fish: let not the waves of this age overpower you: if there is a storm, seek the deep and the abyss: if there is old age, play in the waves: if there is a tempest, beware of the rocky shore; lest the raging surf strike you against the cliff. For it is written: Be shrewd as serpents (Matt. X, 16).

18. And since there is a proposed example of cunning serpents, let us be cunning in seeking and maintaining marriages, let us cherish the partnerships entrusted to us. And if those who were born in distant regions and separated in time come together, and if a man contends for a foreign land, no distance, no absence diminishes the pleasing love. The same law connects the present and the absent: the same bond of nature binds the distant and the united in the rights of conjugal love. They are joined under the same yoke of blessing, even if one must endure the long separations of distant regions; for they have received the yoke of grace not on the physical neck, but on the neck of the mind. The viper, the most wicked kind of beast, and cleverer than all other serpentine species, when it has taken on the desire to mate, seeks the well-known company of the sea moray, or prepares a new one: having advanced to the shore, having given testimony to its presence with a hiss, it summons her to the conjugal embrace. But the invited moray is not lacking, and she imparts the desired uses of her poisonous serpent's conjunction. What does such a conversation mean, if not that the behavior of spouses must be endured; and if he is absent, that his presence must be awaited, even if he is harsh, deceitful, inconsistent, slippery, drunken? What is worse than poison, which does not spare even the moray eel in a spouse? It is not lacking in invites, and with careful charity it embraces the slippery serpent. He bears your misfortunes and the fickleness of a woman: can you not, O woman, tolerate your husband? Adam was deceived by Eve, not Eve by Adam (33, q. 5, c. Adam per Evam). Whom the woman called to blame, it is right that she should take on as her leader; lest she stumble again due to female weakness. But he is rough and uncultivated. Once he pleased. Should a man be chosen frequently? He compares his own and seeks an ox, and he loves a horse; and if another is changed, nevertheless he does not know how to drag the yoke like the counterpart of another, and he does not think himself whole: you reject your husband, and you think of changing often; and if one day he is absent, you introduce a rival, and immediately you carry out an unknown cause as if known of shame. A snake seeks the absent one, calls the absent one, and proclaims with a soothing hiss; and when she senses the approaching counterpart, she vomits venom, showing respect to her husband, ashamed of her conjugal grace: you, woman, repel your husband coming from afar with insults. The viper surveys the sea, explores the path of her husband: you obstruct the way to the man with insults: you stir up the poison of quarrels, you do not reject it: you boil with a dreadful venom at the time of conjugal embraces; you are not ashamed of marriage, nor do you respect your husband.

19. But also you, sir, can accept it in this way: set aside the swelling of the heart, the harshness of character, when your diligent wife comes to you: push away indignation, when your charming wife encourages you towards love. You are not a master, but a husband: you did not obtain a servant, but a wife. God wanted you to be the leader of the inferior sex, not the all-powerful one. Return kindness for zeal, return gratitude for love. A viper emits its own venom: can you not set aside the hardness of mind? But you have a natural rigidity: you must temper it with contemplation of marriage, and set aside the harshness of the mind with reverence for the union. It may be done in this way. Do not seek, men, another's bed, do not plot against another's relationship. Adultery is serious, and an injury to nature. God first made two, Adam and Eve, that is, a man and a wife, and a wife from the man, that is, from Adam's rib; and he commanded both to be in one body, and to live with one spirit. Why do you separate one body, and divide one spirit? This is adultery against nature. This is taught by the eel and the snake, who desire the embrace not from a lawful union, but from the passion of lust. Learn, O men, who seek to touch another man's wife, with whom you desire to join in the bed of a serpent, to whom you even compare yourself. Hurry towards the snake, who pours herself into the lap of a man not by the direct path of truth, but by the slippery path of deviant love. She rushes towards her who takes back her poison, as a viper who, having completed the duty of mating, drinks again the poison she had vomited; for she is an adulterous viper. (Prov. XXIII, 32). And Solomon also said that whoever is drunk, when their desire is accustomed to boil through wine, is stretched out as if by a snake's bite, and as if by a lurking one spreads that poison to them. And so that you know he spoke of an adulteress, he added: 'Your eyes, when they see another woman, your mouth speaks perverse things.' (Ibid., 33).


20. And let no one think that we have set forth contradictory things, such as using the example of this snake both for good and for evil; for in both cases it would profit us to be ashamed either not to show faith to a beloved to whom the snake shows faith, or to abandon holy unions and prefer harmful things which he does who is mixed with a snake.

Chapter VIII.

On the cunning of the octopus and the crab, by which deceitful people are symbolized; with an exhortation to avoid greed.

21. And because we have started to weave our discourse with cunning, by which each person strives to deceive and circumvent his brother, and to devise new frauds; so that he may cheat whom he cannot overcome by force, and cover him with a certain deceitful skill: I will not pass over that fraudulent ingenuity of the polypus, who, having found a rock on a shallow shore, attaches itself to it, and with its cloudy cunning assumes its color, and covered with a similar appearance, unsuspectedly catches many fish that have slipped in, while they do not suspect anything, and think it is a rock, he ensnares them with the tricks of his secret art, and intercepts them in the fold of his own flesh. Thus the prey comes willingly, and is captured by such arguments, which are characteristic of those who often change their disposition, and employ various methods of harming; so that they disturb the minds and senses of individuals, while proclaiming self-control to those who possess it, as if they were deviating from the pursuit of virtue and being immersed in pleasant self-indulgence; so that those who hear or see them believe in their reckless persuasiveness; and thus they slide more quickly, not knowing how to avoid or guard against what harms, since wickedness overshadowed by the mask of kindness is more serious and more harmful. And therefore, those who spread their hair of deceit and disperse their arms far and wide, or assume various forms, must be beware. For these are like many-tentacled octopuses, and they have snares of cunning devices, with which they can entrap whatever falls into the rocks of their deceit.

22. Cancer also has its own cunning tricks for the sake of food! For it delights in oysters itself, and seeks a feast of flesh for itself. But because, just as it is eager for food, it is also watchful for danger: since both hunting and being hunted are difficult: difficult, because the witness is enclosed inside stronger food; for nature has fortified the softness of its flesh with certain imperial precepts, just like certain mice are nourished and nurtured in the concave hollow of shells, and it spreads out as if in a certain valley; and therefore all attempts at capturing the crab are in vain, because no force can open the closed oyster: and it is dangerous if its claw is enclosed, it resorts to arguments and plots new traps with deceit. Therefore, because all species are soothed by pleasure, it examines whether sometimes the oyster, in remote places protected from every wind, opens that double shell of its against the rays of the sun, and unlocks the barriers of its shells, so that it may receive a certain pleasure from the free air of its internal organs; and then secretly inserting a pebble, it hinders the closure of the oyster; and thus, finding the opened barriers, it safely inserts its claws and devours the internal organs.

So there are people who, by the use of deceit, creep into the use of another's resources, and support the weakness of their own virtue with a certain cunning, weave deceit for their brother, and feed on another's suffering. But you should be content with your own possessions and not feed on the losses of others. The good food is the simplicity of innocence. Having their own good, they do not know how to lay traps for others, nor do they burn with the flames of greed, for whom every gain is a loss to virtue and an inflaming desire. And therefore she is blessed, if she knows her own goods, when poverty is true, and to be preferred to all treasures; for it is better to give a little with the fear of God, than to have great treasures without fear. For how much does man nourish? Or if you seek what also abounds to others for grace, that too is not much. For hospitality in vegetables with grace is better than the preparation of fat calves with discord. Therefore let us use our wit to seek grace, and to protect salvation, not to restrict another person's innocence. We are allowed to use maritime examples for the advancement of our own well-being, not for the danger of others.

Chapter IX.

Of the foreknowledge of the hedgehog announcing a future storm. That he has received this gift from God, whose mercy is proclaimed in all things created.

24. The sea urchin, a small, lowly and despised animal, is often said to be a harbinger of future storms or calm seas for sailors. Indeed, when it senses a storm approaching, it grabs hold of a strong pebble and carries it like a burden and drags it like an anchor, so that it is not shaken by the waves. Therefore, it does not rely on its own strength, but is guided by the weight of an external stability. Sailors take this as a sign of future disturbance and take precautions so that they are not caught unprepared by an unexpected whirlwind. Who, as a mathematician, as an astrologer, or as a Chaldean, can comprehend the courses of the stars, the movements of the sky, and the signs? With what genius did he gather this knowledge? Through what teacher did he acquire it? Who was his interpreter of such great divination? Often, people see a confusion in the air, and often they are deceived, because most of the time, it disperses without a storm. The hedgehog is not deceived, it never overlooks its own signs.

25. From where does such knowledge come to a small animal, to predict the future? The more there is nothing in it, the more it can have such wisdom, believe that it has also received this gift of foresight through the kindness of the Lord of all things. For if God clothes the grass, so that we marvel; if he feeds the birds; if he provides food for the raven, for its young cry out to the Lord; if he has given wisdom to women in weaving; if he has not left the spider, which suspends its delicate and skillfully woven webs on doors, immune to wisdom; if he himself has given strength to the horse, and has taken away its fear from its neck, so that it rejoices in the field and mocks kings when they come near, smells the battle from a distance, and is aroused by the sound of the trumpet; if he has filled most of these irrational and other insensible things, like grass and lilies, with the disposition of his wisdom, why do we doubt that he has also bestowed the gift of foresight on the hedgehog? For nothing remains unexplored, nothing hidden. He sees all things, who feeds all things; wisdom fills all things, who made all things in wisdom, as it is written (Ps. 103:24). And if he did not overlook the hedgehog of his visitation; if he considers it, and informs of future things by signs, does he not consider you? Indeed, he does consider, as his divine Wisdom testifies, saying: If he looks at the birds, if he feeds them, are you not worth more than them (Matthew 6:26)? If God clothes the grass of the field, which is here today and tomorrow is thrown into the fire, how much more will he clothe you, you of little faith?

Chapter X.

To each species of fish, its own habitats are prescribed, from which human levity and luxury are condemned: however, some fish change places for the sake of their offspring; the reason for this is explained, and human incontinence is criticized. Likewise, about the particular virtues of certain fish.

26. But do we think that the grace of nature remains in fishes without some gift, namely that each species of fish has designated habitats, which no other species exceeds, nor invades the territory of another? Who divided these habitats, which must not be violated at any time? We have heard of a geometer, but we have never heard of a seameter; yet fish know their own measure, not prescribed by city walls and gates, not limited by the buildings of homes, not restricted by the boundaries of fields, but by the measure of what is appropriate; so that it is sufficient for each individual, as much as is abundant for its use, not as much as some excessive greed may claim for itself. There is a certain law of nature to seek only what is sufficient for sustenance, and to consider the fortune of one's possessions in the manner of food. This kind of fish is nourished and born in that sea inlet, while that one is in another. In conclusion, you will not find mixed kinds of fish: but what is abundant here, is lacking elsewhere. And again, that sea inlet nourishes cephalopods, while that one nourishes wolves: one nourishes shellfish, another nourishes locusts. There is no freedom to roam; yet neither is the abundance hindered by mountains or the crossing hindered by flowing rivers, but the use impressed by nature as if holding each person within the boundaries of their homeland and going beyond is considered suspicious by the inhabitants.


27. But our opinion is far different, to exchange our homes for exile, to be held captive by the disdain of the inhabitants, to seek the favor of strangers, to move the perpetual boundaries that our fathers established, to join field to field, house to house. The land fails to provide for men, the seas are crowded. Again, at the whim of individuals the land is intersected, the sea pours in, so that they may make islands, so that they may possess the straits: they claim the spaces of the sea by the right of ownership, and they cite the rights of the fish as being subjected to the condition of native-born servitude. This, he says, is my part of the sea, that is someone else's. The powerful elements divide themselves. Oysters are nourished by these waves; fish are confined in their fish farms. Luxury is not enough for them unless they have warehouses of oysters. Therefore, they count their ages and build receptacles for fish, so that the sea of a rich man can be filled with banquets. How the neighbors hear their name with their ears! How they behold their possessions with their eyes! Just as day and night devise ways to take something from the next day, will you alone inhabit the earth? cries the prophet. The Lord knows these things and reserves them for punishment.

28. They capture the secrets of nature and they know beyond the boundaries of the earth, the sea that no islands interrupt, nor is there any land in between, nor is anything else placed further. Therefore, in that place where the wide sea prevents all use of sight, they are said to hide themselves, the immense race of fish with bodies equal to mountains, as those who have been able to see have reported to us: there they spend a peaceful life separate from the islands, and separate from all the contamination of the coastal cities, they have their own regions and distributed dwellings. They stay within the unoffending boundary of their neighbors and do not seek changes of place through wandering: instead, they love their native soil as if it were their own and consider it pleasant to linger there. They have chosen this in order to be able to lead a solitary life, removed from the interference of judges.

However, there are some species of fish that do not change their habitats easily due to the necessity of breeding. These fish, seeking an appropriate and natural time, gather from many places and different bays of the sea, as if by common agreement. They then head towards the north, propelled by the north wind, and strive towards the northern part of the sea due to a certain law of nature. If you were to see them ascending, you would think that they are some kind of flow, as they rush forward and intersect waves, flowing forcefully through the Propontis into the Black Sea. Who announces these places to the fishes, sets the times? Who gives the arrangement of food, the order of companionship, the limits and times of return? Men have their emperor, whose authority is expected. A sign is displayed, edicts are proposed to the provinces to convene, letters are directed to the military tribunes, a day is appointed; and many are unable to meet on the appointed days. Which emperor gave the command to the fishes? Who grants this discipline to the teacher? Who organizes the paths for the surveyors? Who directs the leaders on the journey so that no encounter is missed? But I recognize who that emperor is, who, by divine arrangement, infuses his authority into the senses of all beings, who, in silence, bestows the order of natural discipline upon mute creatures; not only does he penetrate the great things, but he also establishes himself through the smallest things. The fish obeys the divine law, while humans contradict. The fish solemnly obeys the celestial commands, and humans make void the precepts of God! Does it seem contemptible to you because it is mute and devoid of reason? But be careful not to hold yourself in greater contempt if you are found more irrational than the irrational. But what is more reasonable than this passage of the fish, whose reason is not explained by words but speaks through actions? For during the summer they go to the embrace of the Black Sea, because this gulf is sweeter than the rest of the sea. Not so much because of the sun's heat, as because it delays the others, and this is the reason why it does not completely exhaust all the water which is sweet and potable. But who is ignorant of the fact that even those things which are of the sea often find delight in fresh waters? Furthermore, while they pursue the rivers and ascend to the upper regions, fish of a different kind are often taken in the rivers. Therefore, since this reason makes the Black Sea more agreeable to them, either because the usual heat of the north wind tempers the sun there, or because they consider it more favorable than other places, in which they can generate and rear their own offspring, since the tender offspring can hardly endure the labor of a foreign region, which is fed by the gentle influence of the air there. Therefore, after completing their task, they all return together in the same order in which they had come.

30. By what reasoning should we consider this? The Sinus Ponti (Bay of Pontus) is subject to the most violent blasts of the north wind and the other winds; hence a heavy storm rages there, and tempests arise, so that the sand is turned upside down from the depths: proof of this is the sandy swell, which rises higher with the motion of the winds, then, being heavier in weight, is undoubtedly considered intolerable not only to sailors but also to the very sea creatures themselves. Moreover, it should be noted that many and mighty rivers from the Pontus are mixed together, and in the winter season the very bay itself becomes colder, freezing from the flow of the torrents; for this reason, fish, like judges of the currents, are accustomed to seek the gentleness of the breeze there during the summer: having enjoyed its pleasantness, they then strive to avoid the harshness of winter; and fleeing the harsh Northern region, they retreat into the remaining bays, where either the gentleness of the winds is softer or the temperature of springtime is accustomed to shine. Therefore, a fish knows the time of giving birth, which Solomon Wisdom referred to as a great mystery: It knows the time of going and returning; it knows the time of completing tasks and resting, and it knows that it cannot be deceived (Eccles. III, 2 et seq.); because it does not rely on reasoning and logical arguments, but on the inspiration of nature, which is the true teacher of piety. In conclusion, all living beings have predetermined times for giving birth, except for humans who are confused and disordered. The remaining species seek the mercy of time, only women harshly pour out their offspring. For a wandering and unrestrained desire for procreation displays a wandering age for giving birth. Fishes cross such great seas in search of some benefit for their kind. We also cross the vast seas, but how much more honorable is it to undertake it out of love for succession than out of greed for money? Finally, for them, it is considered piety, for us, it is considered a means of profit. They bring back offspring more dear than all the goods: we, driven by wretched greed for meager gain, bring back goods far inferior in exchange for danger. Therefore, they return to their homeland: we abandon ours. They gain increase in offspring by swimming: we diminish by sailing.

31. Who then could deny that a divine intelligence and virtue is infused into them? When one sees these people use their lively wit to undertake a solemn pilgrimage to the North; others, with only a small body, possess such strength that they stand with full sails in the midst of raging waves, just as the small fish, the remora, is said to stop an enormous ship with such ease that you would think it was rooted in the sea and not moving. For a long time it keeps its immobility. Do you think that this could have been achieved without the gift of the Creator? Why should I mention swords, or saws, or sea dogs, or whales, or foxes? Why even talk about the center of the turtle, and this being dead? For just as it is said that the fresh mouth of a snake, if someone steps on it, is more harmful than the venom itself, and the wound cannot be healed; so it is also remembered that the dead turtle, with its stinger, brings more danger than when it was alive. The little hare, also a timid animal on land, formidable in the sea, brings mischief quickly and that which cannot easily be taken away. For the creator wanted you to not be safe enough from those who lie in wait in the sea; so that because of the few things that harm, as if stationed on guard, always girded with the weapons of faith and the shield of devotion, you should rely on the protection of the Lord for salvation.

Chapter XI.

On the fishes of the Atlantic Ocean: also on salt, coral, and other things. For these reasons, but especially because of navigation, the sea surpasses the land. After which, with a few mentions of Jonah and Peter, the conversation is concluded.

32. Let us come to the Atlantic Ocean. How enormous and of infinite magnitude are the whales there! If and when they emerge from the waves, you would think they are walking islands, with the highest mountains standing out with their summits reaching towards the sky. These creatures are not driven or carried along by the currents, nor do they appear on the shores, but they are said to be carried in the depths of the Atlantic Sea, so that sailors, when they catch sight of them, are discouraged from sailing in those areas out of fear, and dare not approach the secrets of the elements without extreme terror of death.


33. But now let us ourselves rise from the depths of the sea, and let our discourse emerge a little and elevate itself to higher things: let us look at those things which are common to many, and are full of grace, how water is turned into the solidity of salt, so that it often cuts with iron; which is not at all surprising of British salts, which in appearance are strong like marble, resplendent with the snowy whiteness of the same metal, and are both a healthy food and a most pleasing drink for the body. Even a coral stone, which is not disgraceful in the sea as a plant, when transferred to the air, solidifies into the firmness of a stone. Hence, nature has also fixed the most precious pearl in oysters, and how the sea water has solidified it in such soft flesh. What is difficult to find among kings lies as if worthless on the shores, and they are collected on rough rocks and cliffs. The golden fleece is also nourished by water, and the coasts produce wool in the likeness of the mentioned metal, whose color no one so far has been able to imitate by various dyes; so human industry does not know how to fulfill the favor of maritime nature! We know with what care even the less valuable fleeces of sheep are treated: although they may be very good, however no dye is produced from them. This is the natural color, which no dye has matched yet: this is also the fish's wool. But even the shellfish themselves, which give the royal purple, are from the sea.

34. And what favor of meadows, or pleasantness of gardens, can compare to the picture of the azure sea? Though gold may shine on the meadows, the shine of gold is also reflected in the sea: and while the former quickly wither, the latter endures for a long time. Lilies shine in gardens from afar, sails on ships: here there is fragrance, there the wind blows. What usefulness in a leaf! How much commerce on ships! Lilies bring sweetness to our noses, sails bring safety to people. Add leaping fish, and playful dolphins: add the waves resounding with hoarse murmurs: add the ships sailing along the shores, or departing from the shores. And when the chariots are sent forth from the starting gates, how eagerly the spectators compete and how ardently they love! The horse runs in vain, but the ships do not run in vain. The former is in vain, because it is empty: the latter is for utility, as if they were full of grain. What is more pleasing to them, which is not done by whip, but by the breath of the winds: where no one opposes, but everyone is a supporter: where no one is defeated whoever arrives, but all the ships that have arrived are crowned: where the reward for salvation is the palm, and victory is the price of return. For there is such a difference between direct and reflected rays! The former continue, the latter dissolve. Attach the shores woven with oars, on which the breeze of departure is blowing from the sky. Therefore, the charioteers return empty applause: they fulfill their vows as saved.

35. What worthy thing shall I speak of Jonah, whom the whale received unto life again, and restored him to the grace of prophecy? The water corrected what the earth had deflected; he sang in the belly of the whale, who lamented upon the earth. And so that the redemption of both elements may not go unnoticed, the salvation of the earth preceded in the sea, for the sign of the Son of Man is the sign of Jonah. Just as he was in the belly of the whale, so Jesus was in the heart of the earth. In both there is a remedy; a greater example of compassion, however, is found in the sea; for the fish received Him whom men rejected, and whom men crucified, the fish preserved. Peter also staggered in the sea, but did not fall: and confessed in the waves, yet denied on land. Therefore, there he is seized as if devoted by hand: here he is met as if forgotten with a censorious look. But now let us ask the Lord, that our speech may be cast out like Jonah onto the land, lest it continue to fluctuate in the salt water. And indeed the gourd has already come forth, which shades us from our evils: but as the sun shines upon it, it withers and reminds us to rest, lest we begin to burn on the earth with conceit, and even our words fail us. Certainly, more forgiveness of sins has been given to us than to the Ninevites in the waters.

Chapter XII. (Sermo VIII.)

He imagines birds flying away from his memory, to which he elegantly recalls his speech. He says that his audience will give him their attention, but he will give them brevity. Finally, he desires the sweetness of various birds.

36. And when he had paused for a moment, he resumed the conversation and said: Beloved brothers, we had escaped into a necessary discussion about the nature of birds, and this kind of conversation had flown away with the birds themselves. For it happens by a certain nature that those who look at something, or want to express it in speech, take on the quality of the things they either look at or speak about; so when we linger with the sluggish, and when we are carried away with the swift by sight, we also use a slower or faster style of speech. Therefore, while I am careful not to pass over submerged things in the sea and to avoid being concealed by waters, I escape from every flying creature; for while I search the lowest whirlpools of the waters, I do not look up to the aerial flights; nor did the shadow of a passing bird divert me, which could have shone in the waters. But when I thought that every task was completed, and I believed that I had finished, and I considered the fifth day to be completed; the nature of birds came to mind, which, when they go to sleep, are accustomed to soothe the air happily with their song, as if they were renewing the duties solemnly with the rising and setting of the day; so that after completing or beginning the night, they may give thanks to their Creator according to the praises of both night and day, at their own appointed time. Therefore, I had lost a great incentive for arousing our devotion. For who, possessing the sense of a human being, would not blush to end the day without the celebration of the psalms, when even the tiniest birds continue the rising and setting of days and nights with solemn devotion and sweet song.

37. Therefore, let the fleeting conversation return to us, which had almost flown out of sight, and as the eagle seeking its high flight had obscured it with clouds; unless because our eyes, having been washed with water while we were lifting them from the abyss to heaven, observed that the void of air was being traversed by the wings of birds, we thought it necessary to recall it for the purpose of the pen. You will be the judges, who are bird-catchers of words, whether it would have flown out more wisely, or whether it has fallen usefully into your nets. And I do not fear that weariness will creep upon us in searching for flying creatures that did not creep in searching through the depths; or that anyone will fall asleep in our discussion, when they can be awakened by the songs of birds. But surely whoever has watched the silent fishes, I doubt that they cannot feel sleep among the singing birds, when they are provoked to stay awake by such a reason. Nor shall it be considered insignificant, that it was able to be passed over, since it is the third part of living creatures. For it is not doubtful that there are three kinds of animals, terrestrial, flying, and aquatic. Finally, it is written: Let the waters bring forth reptiles of living creatures according to their kind, and flying creatures that fly above the earth under the firmament of heaven according to their kind.

38. We are called back to our previous actions like forgetful travelers, who, when they pass by without thought, upon returning to their own carelessness, undertake the punishment of their journey's labor. However, there is also a good traveler, who compensates for the loss of going back by the quick speed of the remaining journey, which I think should be done; especially since we are talking about birds, which are accustomed to glaring at the eyes of people who move too fast. What indeed is suitable for them to linger, in which swiftness is accustomed to please? Therefore, our speech, uncommon and unusual in such a genre of writing, may resound and echo with melodious birds.

39. But where can I find the swan songs that even in the heavy fear of impending death delight me? Where can I find those natural melodies of song, from which even the resounding marshes emit the sweetest harmony? Where can I find the voice of the parrot and the sweetness of the blackbirds? If only the nightingale would sing, to awaken me from my sleep! For that bird is accustomed to herald the dawn of the rising day, and to bring forth a more abundant joy at daybreak. However, even if their sweetness is lacking, there are cooing turtles, and hoarse doves, and even a crow calls for rain with a loud voice. Therefore, let us pursue the rural aviary in the language and knowledge that the countryside has taught us.

Chapter XIII.

He begins by discussing the kingfisher, a bird from the aquatic species, and explains how divine kindness is shown towards this bird, urging us to await God's help. He also talks about the predictions of rain or wind made by birds, and the reliable protection provided by geese.

And since we have spoken about aquatic reptiles, it is difficult for our discourse to suddenly ascend to the birds of the sky. Therefore, let us first speak about those birds that dwell around the waters of the sea and rivers, with which we can emerge. So let us begin with the kingfisher. It is a seabird that usually lays its eggs on the shores, so that it deposits them in the sand in the middle of winter. For it has been assigned the task of incubation at that time, when the sea rises most, and more forceful waves crash against the shores, so that the grace of this bird might shine forth with more sudden tranquility. For when the sea has become wavy, once the eggs are placed, it suddenly calms down, and all the storms of the winds cease, and the breezes of the air are still, and the sea stands peaceful without winds, until it warms its eggs with its halcyon. However, seven days are spent on their incubation, after which it brings out the chicks and completes the offspring. Immediately it adds another seven days, in which it nourishes its offspring until they begin to grow. Do not wonder at such a short period of nurturing, when the completion of the offspring is only a few days. However, such a small bird has been granted such great favor by divine intervention, that they observe these fourteen nautical days of presumed calmness, which they also call the halcyon days, during which no disturbances from stormy weather are feared.

Is it not true that you are worth more than the sparrows? The Lord said. Therefore, if a tiny bird rises from the contemplation and surges the sea and suddenly gets crushed, and rough storms and winds of heavy winter wipe away the clouds of the sky, and it calms the waves by the sudden infusion of tranquility through all the elements; how much you should presume, O man, made in the image of God, you acknowledge, if you imitate the faith of that little bird with zeal of devotion. Seeing that storm rise, the winds raging, she, not called back by the harsh winter, not turned back, but driven forward. Finally, she places her eggs on the shore, where the wet sand still receives them with the receding wave: nor does she fear the rising waves that she sees crash and flow back.

42. And do not think that it appears to have contempt for eggs; immediately where it has laid its eggs, it builds a nest, and it warms its offspring with its own body, nor does it fear for its own safety from the flooding of the shore: but secure in the grace of God, it entrusts itself to the winds and waves. This is not enough. It adds as many other days for nourishing: nor does it fear to disturb the calmness of the treacherous sea for so many days, and it tests its own worthiness now established by the solemnity of nature. She does not conceal her tender offspring in any hiding places or shelters, nor does she confine them in caves, but exposes them to the bare and icy ground; nor does she protect them from cold, but believes that they will be safer with the divine heat, by which she despises other things. Who among us does not cover their little ones with clothing and hide them in shelters? Who does not enclose them within the confines of rooms? Who does not diligently seal the windows on all sides, so that no breeze can even penetrate lightly? Those whom we diligently nurture and support, we strip them of the covering of heavenly mercy; but those whom Halcyon casts out naked, she clothes them with divine garments.

43. And I will not pass over you, divers, to whom this name of diving has stuck because of your constant diving; just as you often gather the signs of the breezes while diving, and foreseeing a future storm, swiftly fly in the middle of the sea and hurry to the safe shores with a clamor. Just as well, you coots, who take pleasure in the deep sea, play in the shallows, fleeing when you sense the disturbance of the sea. The heron itself, which is accustomed to cling to the marshes, leaves its familiar places and, fearing the rain, flies above the clouds, so that it cannot feel the storms of the clouds. Let us consider the various birds of the sea, how, with the imminent movement of the winds, they seek safer and more peaceful waters, and there they find hidden sustenance in the depths of the earth.

But who wouldn't marvel at the night-time guard duty of geese, who by the constancy of their singing also attest to their vigilance? Indeed, it was by them that even the Roman Capitols were saved from the Gallic enemy. Rome, you owe them a debt deservedly. Your gods were sleeping, while the geese were awake and watchful. Therefore, on those days you offer sacrifices to geese, not to Jupiter. For your gods yield to geese, from whom they know themselves to be defended, lest they themselves be captured by an enemy.

Chapter XIV.

Birds are connected to fish with various relationships; however, they do not lack the function of feet. About the various types and differences of different birds.

45. However, after the description of the fish, a discussion followed about those birds which are accustomed to the waters, because they also delight in swimming and have a talent for it. Therefore, the first connection seems to be between these birds and fish, because there seem to be certain commonalities in swimming between both groups. The second connection is also shared by all birds and fish, because the use of flying is similar to swimming. For just as a fish cuts through water by swimming, so a bird cuts through the air with rapid flight. And both species similarly have tails and wings for propulsion; just as fish raise themselves with the wings to the front, and proceed to the back, they also easily turn their tails with a rudder wherever they want, or direct themselves with a certain force from the opposite direction. Birds also float in the air like they do in water, and as if they extend their wings, they also raise their tails to the higher parts or submerge them in the lower parts. Since in some respects the same use and appearance exist, therefore the creation of both kinds of waters has proceeded from the divine precept. For God said: Let the waters bring forth reptiles having life according to their kind, and flying creatures above the earth under the firmament of heaven according to their kind. Therefore, not without reason, because both kinds are produced from water, swimming is suitable for both.

Certainly, both the smooth snake and all other serpents (for the name 'serpent' is given to them because they cannot walk but instead creep), as well as dragons, are in a similar manner to fishes mostly without feet; no kind of birds is without the function of feet, because they all live on land; and therefore they are supported by the function of feet, because they need this kind of service for seeking food. And so, some birds are armed with talons for seizing prey, like hawks and eagles which practice hunting for plunder: others, either for walking or for preparing food for themselves, use a fitting use and service.


47. However, there is one name for birds, but different kinds; how could anyone comprehend them with memory or knowledge? Therefore, there are birds that feed on flesh. That is why they have rough claws, a curved and sharp beak, and swift flight; because they live by snatching, so they can quickly seize the prey they follow, and quickly disembowel it with their mouth or claws. There are also birds that feed on discovered seeds: others on different and accidental food. There is also a variety of mating, for the sake of which they engage in raids. For due to their greed for plundering, or for the sake of spying, they do not agree with each other; and therefore they avoid joining together. For avarice rejects the partnership of many. Furthermore, the joining together of many would easily expose itself. Therefore, there is no mating partnership for these birds except the yoke of partnership. Therefore, eagles and hawks have this way of life. On the other hand, pigeons, cranes, starlings, crows, and magpies, as well as thrushes, enjoy the union of many.


48. There are also other types of birds, some of which stay in one place at all times, others that travel to different regions and return after winter is over. There are also some that return during winter and migrate during summer; either because they move to warmer places during winter, or because they prefer to spend most of their time in the more pleasant locations they know. Finally, thrushes return at the end of autumn, near the beginning of winter, as if summer had come to an end. They endeavor to ensnare us with inhospitable cruelty, trying to deceive us now with treacherous traps, now with sticky snares, now with lures. The return of the storks raises the banner of spring. Cranes, because they seek the heights, often love to wander.

49. Some birds subject themselves to the hand, and become accustomed to the master's table, and are soothed by touch: others are afraid: others delight in the same dwellings as humans: others love a hidden life in the deserts, which they compensate for by their love of freedom and the difficulty of seeking food. Some birds only make noise with their voices: others delight with their melodious and sweet modulation. Some speak naturally, others speak with the training of different voices, so that you might think a bird is speaking when it is actually a human speaking. How sweet is the song of the blackbird, how distinct is the voice of the parrot! There are also other simple birds, like doves: others cunning, like partridges: the rooster is more boastful, the peacock more splendid. There are also different ways of life among birds; some work together for the common good and, using their combined strength, take care of the state as if under a king; others focus on themselves, refuse authority, and if captured, prefer to leave servitude unworthy of them.

Chapter XV.

On cranes, and their vigilance in guarding, as well as the order maintained by them while flying. And on this occasion, about the state of the ancient republic and the causes of human negligence.

Therefore, let us begin with those things that have given themselves to our use. For in them there is a certain order and natural defense, while in us it is forced and servile. How diligently the cranes exercise their watchfulness in the night, without being commanded or compelled! You can see the guards stationed: while the rest of their companions are asleep, they go around and inspect, so that no danger may arise from any direction, and they transfer their constant protection with energetic vigilance. After the time of the vigils has been fulfilled, having completed her duty, she prepares herself for sleep with the sounding of a trumpet; so that she may awaken the one sleeping, to whom she will hand over the duty. But she willingly takes on the role, not unwilling and slower than sleep, but she eagerly rises from her bed, performs her duty, and presents with equal care and diligence the favor she has received. Therefore there is no desertion, because of natural devotion; therefore there is secure protection, because of free will.


They also follow this order while flying, and by means of this arrangement they alleviate all the labor, so that they take turns in performing their duty. For one takes the lead over the others at an appointed time and as if runs ahead of the group: then it turns around and yields to the next in line for leading the flock. What could be more beautiful than this, that both the labor and the honor are shared by all, and that power is not claimed by a few, but is distributed voluntarily among all?


52. This is the ancient duty and a kind of free state. Thus, from the beginning, having received it from nature, men began to exercise the policy of birds as an example; so that there would be common labor, common dignity, individuals would share responsibilities in turn, they would divide obedience and commands, no one would be devoid of honor, no one exempt from work. This was the most beautiful state of affairs, no one became arrogant with perpetual power, no one was broken by long-lasting servitude; because the promotion was bestowed without envy, in accordance with the order of the position and with moderation of time; and what fell to everyone's shared responsibility seemed more tolerable. No one dared to oppress another with slavery, whose mutual aversions would have been burdensome to endure for the sake of future honors; no labor was heavy for anyone, which dignity would relieve. But after the desire for domination began to claim unwarranted powers, and once acquired, they could not be laid aside: after the common right of military service ceased, and servitude began: after it was no longer a matter of assuming power, but of asserting it, even the function of labor itself began to be endured more harshly; and that which is not voluntary quickly yields to neglect. How reluctantly men take on the duties of the watch, how reluctantly each one keeps watch in the camp, having drawn the lot for danger, which is entrusted to him for his own protection by royal order! The punishment for negligence is set forth; and yet negligence often creeps in, the watches are not kept. For necessity, which imposes service unwillingly, often brings with it disdain. For there is nothing so easy that it does not have its difficulties, when done unwillingly. Therefore, constant labor turns away desire, and continuous and long-continued authority begets insolence. Wherever I come among men who willingly lay down their authority and yield the insignia of their leadership, and willingly become the last in rank among the first, I usually argue not only about who is in the first place, but also about who is in the middle, and I claim the first place for myself in the seating at the banquet; and once I have won it, I want it to be perpetual. Therefore, among cranes, there is patience in work, and among the powerful there is humility. They are reminded to perform the duties of their office, but they are not reminded to give up their power; for there, the natural rest of sleep must be interrupted, while here, the favor of voluntary diligence must be extended.

Chapter XVI.

How storks set out, and are led and defended by crows. The hospitality of the same crows is praised, and human negligence is criticized. Finally, our lack of piety towards parents is opposed to the benevolence of storks.


53. Storks are said to set out in a gathered flock, if they think there is somewhere they must go, and they are carried along together to many places around the East, and they move as if all at once with a military token. You would think the army was marching with its standards, that is how all of them preserve the order of traveling together and going ahead. But the crows escort and direct them, and they follow as if attending certain Trojan troops; to such an extent that they are believed to contribute some assistance to the storks fighting against enemy birds, and to undertake others' battles at the risk of their own. The indication of this matter is that no one is found to reside in those places for any period of time; and that when they return with wounds, they speak with a clear voice of their own blood and with other indications that they have undergone the conflicts of serious battles. Therefore, who imposed punishment for their desertion? Who prescribed terrifying penalties for those who abandon military service, so that no one tries to escape from pursuing hospital troops, but all strive eagerly to fulfill the duty of being escorted?


54. Let people learn to observe the rights of hospitality, and from birds let them understand what duties are to be shown to guests, what services are to be assigned to them, and how crows are not accustomed to deny their own dangers. Therefore, we close our doors to those to whom birds even entrust their souls; and those whom they accompany in their separation, we deny shelter; and to those for whom they undertake wars, we frequently wage wars. I am lying if this was not the cause of punishment for the Sodomites: or if an Egyptian madness in attempting to wage war against a hospitable nation, paid the penalty of its treacherous shipwreck by the destruction of the people.

However, the kindness and wisdom of this bird's mercy are worth considering, which not even one of us could imitate, even after an example of irrationality. For it, the offspring, surrounding the naked limbs of their aged father, keeps them warm with the coverings of its long-established wings and the motion of its own feathers. And what shall I say? It feeds them with collected food, and even repairs the losses of nature itself, so that by supporting the old man here and there with the support of its wings, they may exercise him in flying and revive the limbs of their pious father, which have now fallen into disuse, for their former uses. Who among us would not hesitate to relieve a sick father? Who would not place a weary old man on their shoulders, which is hardly believable in the very history itself? Who, in order to be pious, does not assign this duty to their servants? But truly, it is not burdensome for birds, for it is full of piety: it is not burdensome, as it is fulfilled by the debt of nature. Birds do not refuse to feed their father, which many humans have also refused out of fear of punishment. Birds are not taught, but born with their law. Birds have no rules for this duty, but natural gratitude is their duty. Birds are not ashamed to carry the limbs of a revered old man; for it is the transportation of piety, which has become so well known by frequent testimony, that it has found fitting reward of remuneration. For by Roman custom, a pious bird is called. And what is said to have been hardly granted to one emperor with the advice of the senate, these birds have deserved in common. Therefore, these birds have the decree of the fathers as a sign of their own mercy. For it is fitting that the pious sons of the fathers be praised in a previous judgment. They also have the approval of all; for the repayment of favors is called 'antipelargesis', because the stork is called 'pelargos'. Therefore, virtue has received its name from them, since the relationship of gratitude is expressed by the word 'ciconia'.

Chapter XVII.

Of the diligence, industry, and devotion of the swallow towards its offspring. Of the impatience, dishonesty, and despair that are evident in a person's poverty and destitution.

56. We have in the avian offspring an example of devotion to our ancestral customs: let us now consider a great example of maternal diligence towards her children. The tiny swallow, with a small body but an exceptionally pious affection, builds nests more precious than gold, for she skillfully nests. For the nest is more precious than gold. For what is wiser than to enjoy the wandering liberty of flight and to entrust one's small children to the shelter of human dwellings, where no one can harm them? For it is also beautiful that, from the very first day of their birth, it becomes accustomed to human conversation and provides a safer place for its chicks from the attacks of hostile birds. Then, it is remarkable for the skill with which it builds its nests without any assistance. It selects hay with its beak and smears it with mud, so that it can glue them together. But because it cannot carry mud with its feet, it pours water onto the tops of its wings, so that the dust easily sticks to them and becomes a sticky mud with which it gradually gathers the hay or small twigs and makes them adhere. In this way, it constructs the entire structure of the nest, so that its chicks can move about within their little homes on the floor of the nest without stumbling, and no one can insert a foot through the cracks in the woven walls or let in the cold air.


57. But this duty of industry is almost common to many birds: that, however, is extraordinary, in which there is excellent care of piety, and of prudent understanding and knowledge, as well as a certain expertise in medical art; and if any of its young have had their eyes dug out or punctured, it has a certain method of healing, by which it can restore their sight by intercepting their use. Therefore, let no one complain of poverty, for having left empty his own dwelling. The swallow is a poor bird, which abounds in empty air industry. It builds, but does not spend: it raises roofs, and takes nothing away from its neighbor; neither need nor poverty compel it to harm others: neither does it despair in the serious weakness of its offspring. But we are afflicted by poverty, and vexed by the necessity of destitution, and many are driven by need to shame, compelled to crime. We also turn our intellect to frauds out of desire for profit, we prepare our emotions, and in the gravest passions we lose hope, and with a broken spirit we dissolve, inattentive and inert; when we should hope for divine mercy most, when human defenses have failed.

Chapter XVIII.

Love is taught by crows to their offspring, and their impiety is condemned. Hawks and eagles are by no means to be accused of ruthlessness; but the coot that nourishes the abandoned eaglet is to be commended.


Humans learn to love their children through the usefulness and devotion of crows, who diligently accompany their flying children. They are anxious that their young ones may weakly fail, so they provide them with food and do not neglect the duties of nourishing them for a long time. But women of our kind wean them quickly, even those whom they love; or if they are wealthier, they grow tired of nursing. However, the poorer ones reject and abandon their little ones, and deny having taken them. The rich themselves, in order to prevent their wealth from being divided among many, kill their own fetuses in the womb, and extinguish the pledges of their own belly with deadly potions in the very genital chamber, before life is taken away, before it is handed over. Who taught, except a human, to disown their children? Who discovered such cruel laws of fathers? Who made unequal brothers out of the natural bonds of brotherhood? The sons of one wealthy man are cut down by different fates. One is overwhelmed by the distribution of the entire paternal inheritance, another laments the exhausted and destitute portion of the wealth-filled homeland. Did nature divide the merits of the children? She distributed equally to all, the substance necessary for birth and life. Let nature herself teach you not to differentiate based on inheritance, you who have treated those of equal birth with equal rights. Indeed, you should not envy those whom you have collectively given what they were born with, as nature has appointed them.

Accipitres are said to have a harshness towards their own offspring, because when they notice them attempting their first flights, they throw them out of their nests and eliminate them immediately; and if they hesitate, they repel them with their wings and make them fall, they beat them with their wings and force them to dare what they fear; and afterwards they do not bring them any nourishment. But why should we be surprised if they, accustomed to seizing, become disgusted with nurturing? Let us consider that they have been born for this, so that fear may also train birds to be cautious; so that they do not relax their vigilance everywhere, but anticipate dangers that must be avoided by predators. Then, when they have acquired a certain instinct for hunting with these, they seem to train their young more towards prey than towards giving up the advantages of being fed. They are careful that they do not become lazy in their tender age, that they are not spoiled by pleasures, that they do not wither away in idleness, that they do not learn to expect food rather than seek it, that they do not lose their natural strength. They interrupt their studies in nurturing so that they may force themselves boldly into the practice of seizing.

The eagle is also widely known for abandoning its offspring, but not both, only one out of the two chicks. Some have believed this to be due to the aversion to providing for two mouths. But I do not easily believe this, especially since Moses has given such a testimony of the eagle's love for its young, saying: As an eagle protects its nest and trusts in its young and spreads its wings; and takes them and carries them on its shoulders. The Lord alone led them (Deut. XXXII, 11). So how then does he spread his wings, if he kills the other? Therefore, I think that it does not become harsh due to the greed of nourishing it, but rather due to the judgment of examining. For it is always inclined to prove those whom it has begotten; so that the deformity of a degenerate offspring may not diminish the royal pinnacle of its own kind among all birds. Therefore, it is asserted that it exposes its young to the rays of the sun, and hangs the little ones by their claws in the middle of the air; and if someone, with the reflected light of the sun, preserves the fearless sight of the eyes with unharmed vigor, that person is proven to have demonstrated the constancy of a true gaze in accordance with the truth of nature. But if, on the other hand, with his eyes narrowed by the direct ray of the sun, he is rejected as degenerate and unworthy of such a parent; and he is not considered worthy of education, who was unworthy of being received. Therefore, he condemns him not with the harshness of nature, but with the integrity of judgment; not as if he were rejecting his own, but as if he were rejecting something foreign.

However, as it seems to some, the harshness of the royal bird is excused by the clemency of the common bird. For the bird, which is called fulica in Latin and φηνὴ in Greek, adopts or abandons, whether recognized or not, an eagle's chick with its own offspring; and, mixing them together, it nourishes and feeds them with the same care and supply of food as its own young. Therefore, the φηνὴ bird nourishes others, but we cast away our own with cruel harshness. But when an eagle casts away its young, it does not reject them as its own, but as not recognising them as its own kind: we, worse still, when we recognise them as ours, we abandon them.

Chapter XIX.

The turtledove is praised because of its widowhood, and this virtue is even preferred to women, even Christian ones.

62. But let us come to the turtle-dove, which the law of God has chosen as the offering of a chaste victim (Lev. 12:8). Finally, when the Lord was circumcised, it was offered; for it is written in the law of the Lord that they should offer a pair of turtle-doves or two young pigeons (Luke 2:24). For this is truly the sacrifice of Christ, chastity of the body, and grace of the spirit. Chastity is referred to the turtle-dove, grace to the pigeon. For the turtle-dove is carried where it has lost its own marital pairing, being widowed, weary of bridal chambers, and no longer having the name of marriage; because the first love deceived it, having been deceived by the death of the beloved, since it was both unfaithful in perpetuity, and bitter in producing more grief from death than sweetness from love. Therefore, she refuses to repeat the conjugal bond, nor does she dissolve the rights of modesty or the agreements of a pleasing husband; she reserves her love only for him, she keeps the name of wife. Learn, women, how great is the grace of widowhood, which is even praised in birds.

Who then gave these laws to turtles? If I search for a man, I do not find one. For no man dared, since not even Paul dared to prescribe laws of widowed chastity. Finally, he himself says: I desire, therefore, that younger women marry, bear children, be mothers of families, and give no occasion to the adversary (I Tim. V, 14). And elsewhere: It is good for them, if they so remain, but if they do not contain themselves, let them marry. For it is better to marry than to burn (I Cor. VII, 8). Paul desires in women what he persists in doves. And elsewhere he encourages the younger ones to marry; because our women can hardly fulfill the chastity of doves. Therefore, God has poured out this affection upon doves, he has given them the virtue of continence, who alone can prescribe what all must follow. The dove does not burn with the flower of youth, it is not tempted by the snare of opportunity: the dove does not know how to break the first faith; because it knows how to keep the chastity promised by the first lot of marriage.

Chapter XX.

They say that vultures, which are said to reproduce without mating with a male, confirm the possibility of virgin births.

We have spoken about the widowhood of birds, and how it first arose from them: now let us discuss integrity, which is said to exist in many birds in such a way that it can also be found in vultures. It is denied that vultures engage in sexual intercourse, and that they mix in a conjugal manner with a marital connection, and thus conceive without any male seed, and generate without union, and their offspring proceed into old age with a long life; so that their series of life is extended until a hundred years, and the end of a narrow life does not easily come upon them.


65. What do those say, who are accustomed to ridicule our mysteries, when they hear that a virgin gave birth, and they think the birth of an unmarried woman, whose modesty no man's custom had violated, is impossible? Is what is impossible in the Mother of God not denied in birds? A bird gives birth without a male, and no one refutes it; and because Mary, a virgin betrothed to a man, gave birth, they question her modesty. Do we not notice that the Lord, from the very nature itself, put forth many examples before, by which He would prove the beauty of the accepted incarnation and establish the truth?

Chapter XXI.

On birds arranged in a certain form of government. Especially concerning bees, and their marvelous nature in the generation of offspring, in the establishment of a king and their loyalty towards him, in the construction of hives, the collection of honey, and also their usefulness, etc.


Now, let us explain how birds seem to take care of a certain republic and live this life under laws. For here, the use of the republic is that the laws are common to all, and that they are observed with common devotion. All are bound by one bond: it is not a right for one person which another understands as not allowed to him; but what is allowed, is allowed to all; and what is not allowed, is not allowed to all. Also, there is a common reverence for the fathers, by whose advice the republic is governed, a common dwelling for all the city, a common duty of socializing, one command for all, one plan to be followed.


67. These things are great, but how much more remarkable are bees, which alone among all living creatures share a common offspring, inhabit one common dwelling, are enclosed within the threshold of one common homeland, have a common labor, a common food, a common activity, a common use and benefit, and a common flight. What more can be said? They have a common generation for all, and also a common integrity of their virgin body and birth; because they do not mix with each other in any sexual union, nor are they dissolved by desire, nor are their births shaken by pains, but they suddenly release a swarm of offspring in great numbers from their mouths, gathering their offspring from leaves and plants.


68. They themselves appoint their king, they themselves create their people; and although they are placed under a king, they are nevertheless free. For they hold the prerogative of judgment and the affection of loyal devotion; because they love it as if it were appointed by themselves, and they honor it with so much scrutiny. But the king is not led by chance; for in chance there is an outcome, not judgement, and often by irrational chance, the last one is preferred to the better. Nor is he marked by the common outcry of the unskilled multitude, which does not consider the merits of virtue, nor gains insight into the benefits of the common good, but wavers in uncertain mobility. Nor does he sit on thrones by the privilege of succession and royal lineage; since ignorant of public life, he cannot be cautious and educated. Add flatteries and pleasures which are accustomed to weaken the sharpness of young age; then the teachings of eunuchs, of whom many, incline the mind of the king more to their own profit than to the public good. But the king is formed by the nature of bees with illustrious features; so that he excels in size and appearance; and especially in the virtues of character that are foremost in a king, gentleness. For although he has a stinger, he does not use it for vengeance. For the laws of nature are not written in books, but are imprinted on customs; so that those who possess the greatest power are more lenient in punishment. But even the bees, if they do not obey the laws of their king, punish themselves with the sting of their own wound. This is said to be observed by the Persian people even today: that they execute the sentence of their own death for a price paid. Therefore, no people show such reverence and devotion to their king as the Persians, who have the harshest laws for their subjects, not the Indians, not the Sarmatians; just as no bees dare to leave their hive or venture out for food until the king has first left and claimed his dominion by flight.


69. The process, however, is through fragrant fields, where one inhales the scent of gardens full of flowers, where a river gushes through the grass, where the banks are delightful: there is the joyful play of youth, there is rural exercise, there is relief from worries. The work itself is pleasant, as the foundations of the camp are laid with flowers and sweet herbs. For what else is a honeycomb but a certain form of a camp? Ultimately, bees are kept away from these hives. What camps can possess such skill and grace, as they have the lattice of favors, in which minute and round cells are supported by their mutual connection? What architect taught them to compose those hexagonal cells with the discreet equality of the sides, and to hang thin wax panels between the walls of the houses, to pack honeycombs, and to expand granaries woven with flowers with a certain nectar? You can see them all competing for the task, some diligently seeking food, others providing vigilant protection to the camps, others examining the future rains, and observing the gathering of the clouds, others fashioning wax from flowers, others gathering dew infused into the mouth of flowers; yet they do not plot harm through the efforts of others, nor seek out life through plunder: and I wish they did not fear the plots of robbers. However, they have their own spears, and if they are provoked, they pour venom among the honey and place the souls of their vengeance in the burning wound. Therefore, that moisture is poured into the middle of the camp's valleys, and gradually, over time, is turned into honey, when it is liquid from the beginning, and, mixed with wax and the scent of flowers, it begins to emit the sweetness of honey.

70. Scripture rightly compares a good worker to a bee, saying: Go to the bee, and see how it works. It also praises this noble activity, which kings and ordinary people undertake for their well-being. For it is appetizing to all and illustrious (Prov. 6:8). Do you hear what the prophet says? He certainly sends you to follow the example of that little bee, to imitate its work. You see how laborious and pleasing it is. Its fruit is desired and sought after by all, and is not distinguished by the diversity of people: but it sweetens equally for both kings and ordinary people with the same pleasantness. It is not only for pleasure, but also for health: it cleanses the throat and heals wounds, and also pours medicine into internal sores. Therefore, although the bee is weak in strength, it is strong in the power of wisdom and love of virtue.

Lastly, they defend their king with the utmost protection, and they consider it noble to die for him. With the king unharmed, they do not know how to change their judgment or sway their mind. But once he is lost, they abandon their duty to preserve loyalty and they themselves tear apart their own honey; because the one who held the position of duty has been killed.

Therefore, while other birds barely produce one offspring in a year, bees create twins and surpass others in their double fertility.

Chapter XXII.

Volatilia cur dicuntur volantia super terram secus firmamentum coeli. Atque ibidem de ea quae observatur in avibus, corporis diversitate. Postremo nonnulla de cygno et cicada subjunguntur.


73. Let us now consider what he says: Let the waters bring forth reptiles of living souls according to their kind, and flying creatures that fly above the earth according to their kind above the firmament of the sky. Why did he say 'above the earth'? It is certain because they seek their food from the earth. But how 'above the firmament of the sky' when eagles fly higher than other birds and yet they are not above the firmament of the sky? But because in Greek it is called οὐρανὸς, which we call 'coelum' in Latin: οὐρανὸς, however, comes from 'seeing', that is, from seeing, because the air is clear, and flying creatures were said to belong to the kinds of animals that fly in the air, which is purer for seeing. And do not be mistaken by what he says, here the term 'firmament' is not used properly, but metaphorically; because by comparing it to the ethereal body, even this air that we can perceive with our eyes, seems to have the role of a denser and thicker 'firmament'.

Now, because we have said what birds are, what nature and grace they have, and a few things about many; for we do not have the leisure to describe everything, since they are similar and of the same kind; nevertheless, let us consider the diversity that birds themselves have among themselves. For we find that the feet of a crow, for example, are separated and divided by certain distant and separated toes, and similarly the feet of ravens and chicks are also formed differently by nature; we observe that birds that feed on flesh are curved and bent, as if ready for prey. Indeed, those creatures that have the use and habit of swimming have broad feet, and their toes are connected by a certain membrane. In this, the admirable reason of nature is revealed; so that those creatures are able to catch or reach food through their adapted use, and these creatures have suitable aids for swimming, so that they can better float on the water, and with their feet, by the extension of that membrane, they propel themselves through the wider currents of the water as if with certain oars.


75. It is also evident why the swan uses its longer neck; because it is slightly slower in its body and cannot easily reach the depths of the water, it extends its neck to the prey, which it snatches as if it were a prelude to the other parts of the body's food that it has found, and pulls it out from the deep. Add to this that because of its longer and more melodious neck, it is distinguished by a higher and purer tone, and with longer practice it produces a much clearer sound.


76. How sweet is also the song in the small throat of the cicada, with which the bushes are burst in the middle of summer due to the more harmonious songs attracting purer air with their breath at that time, the more resounding are the songs. Nor do bees themselves sing anything unpleasant; for they have a pleasant sweetness in that hoarse murmuring of their voice, which we seem to imitate more slowly in the first broken sound of trumpets, nothing is considered more suitable for exciting the minds into vigor. And this gratitude remains for them, when it is revealed that they do not have the capacity or use of lungs for breathing; but they feed on airy respiration. Finally, if someone pours oil on them, they are quickly killed; because with the pores obstructed, they cannot draw in that airy respiration: and if someone immediately pours vinegar on them, they revive, because the force of the vinegar quickly carries moisture to open the pores, which are blocked by the concretion of oil.

Chapter XXIII.

About the Indian worm, the chameleon, the hare, and the phoenix; through which we are instructed in the preparation for the faith of resurrection and death. About the foreknowledge of the vultures; and about the ministry of the locusts in executing divine vengeance, which, however, is devoured by the Seleucid bird.

77. And because we are talking about birds, we do not think it appropriate to include those things that the Indian worm's history tells us about, nor the accounts of those who have been able to see it. It is said that this horned worm first transforms into the form of a cabbage, and then changes its nature into that of a bombylius; however, it does not retain that form and shape, but appears to assume wings made of loose and wider leaves. From these leaves, the soft Seres pluck the wool that they claim for their own specific uses. And the Lord said: What did you go out into the desert to see? A man clothed in soft garments? Behold, those who are clothed in soft garments are in the houses of kings (Matt. 11:8). The chameleon is also said to deceive with various species and colors. Certainly, it is well known that hares turn white in winter and return to their own color in summer.

78. I have mentioned these things so that, in order to have faith in the future resurrection, these examples may also provoke us: but in such a way that we speak of that exchange which the Apostle clearly expressed, saying: Indeed, we shall all rise again, but we shall not all be changed (1 Corinthians 15:51). And further he says: And the dead shall rise incorruptible, and we shall be changed. For this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality (ibid., 52). Indeed, many (interpreters) without having received the type of change and forms they had not acquired, in no way lacked inappropriate usurpation of undue presumption.

The phoenix bird is also said to live in the regions of Arabia, and it can live up to five hundred years. When it realizes that the end of its life is near, it makes a nest for itself out of frankincense, myrrh, and other fragrances. When the time of its life is complete, it enters the nest and dies. From the juice of its flesh, a worm emerges and gradually grows, and with the passage of a set period of time, it develops the feathers of wings and is restored into the form and shape of a superior bird. Therefore, let this bird teach us to believe in its resurrection, which restores the signs of resurrection to itself without example and without the perception of reason. And certainly, the birds are for the sake of man, not man for the sake of birds. Therefore, let it be an example for us, because the creator and maker of birds does not allow his holy ones to perish forever, who did not allow the unique bird to perish, but desired it to be restored by its own seed. Therefore, who announces to this person the day of death, so that they can make for themselves a burial shroud, fill it with good scents, enter into it, and die there, where the stench of the funeral can be eliminated by the pleasant odors?

80. Make for yourself, O man, a case; stripping off the old man with his actions, put on the new. Your case, your sheath, is Christ, who protects and hides you in the evil day. Do you want to know why the case is protection? My quiver, He says, protected him (Isaiah 49:2). Therefore, your case is faith: fill it with the good scents of your virtues; that is, chastity, mercy, and justice, and in it, enter completely fragrant with the sweet scent of excellent deeds of faith: may this faith-clothed exit of your life be found; so that your bones may become fat, and be like a drunken garden, whose seeds quickly sprout. So know the day of your death, as Paul knew and said: I have fought the good fight, I have finished the race, I have kept the faith. Henceforth there is laid up for me the crown of righteousness (2 Timothy 4:7-8). Thus, he entered his chamber like a good phoenix, which he filled with the sweet scent of martyrdom.

81. I will ask you: however, you respond to me, from where vultures are accustomed to announce the death of men with certain signs, by which indication they have been taught and instructed; so that when a lamentable war is being prepared between opposing armies, many aforementioned birds may follow in a flock, and thereby signify that a multitude of men will fall in battle, becoming prey for vultures? This they seem to conclude with a certain human-like reasoning from the appearance of instruction.


82. Even the locust, by divine grace, penetrates everywhere, and when it has filled the width of each region with its dense swarm, it first strikes without harm, and feeds on the barren land only after receiving the divine signal of permission. Indeed, just as we read in Exodus, it also acts as the celestial executor of righteous vengeance.

This bird, called σελευκὶς in Greek, also devours it, for this is its name in Greek, given as a remedy for the evils that locusts are accustomed to bring: to which the creator gave an insatiable nature of devouring, so that through an unsatisfied feeding it can extinguish the plague that we mentioned above.

Chapter XXIV.

About nocturnal birds; first and foremost about the song of the nightingale hatching: about the owl, bat, and rooster; from which certain things are adapted to our customs.


But what is this? While we are carrying on our conversation, behold, nocturnal birds are already flying around you, and in that very moment when they remind us to bring our conversation to a close, they also produce their own reminder. Various birds return to their nests, which they are accustomed to leave at dusk and hide themselves in, singing a song bidding farewell to the setting of the day; so that they do not depart without offering thanks, by which every creature praises their creator.


Night also has its own songs, which it is accustomed to use to soothe the vigils of humans; the owl also has its own songs. But what should I say about the nightingale, which, as a vigilant guardian, warms its eggs with a certain fold of its body and lap, solacing the sleepless labor of the long night with the sweetness of its song? It seems to me that this is the main purpose of its existence, so that it can animate the eggs it warms with not only its sweet melodies, but also with the warmth of its body. That thin, but modest, woman imitating it, drags a stone with her arm for the use of the mill, so that there may be no lack of food for her little ones, and she soothes the sad affliction of poverty with her nocturnal song. And although it cannot imitate the sweetness of the nightingale, nevertheless it imitates it with the diligence of piety.

The owl itself, just as it does not feel fear at the darkness of the night with its large and gray pupils of nocturnal darkness, exercises its flights unaffected by the darkness of the night. But when day dawns and the brightness of the sun spreads, its vision becomes dull, as if it wanders in darkness. By this indication, it declares that there are some who, although they have eyes to see, are not accustomed to seeing, and they perform the function of their vision in darkness. I speak of the eyes of the heart, which the wise of the world possess, and yet do not see. They perceive nothing in light, they walk in darkness while exploring the dark depths of demons, and believe they see the heights of heaven, describing the world according to their limited understanding. But they have deviated from faith and are ensnared in the darkness of perpetual blindness. Despite having the light of Christ and the Church before them, they see nothing. They open their mouths as if knowing everything, sharp in trivial matters but dull in eternal matters. They expose their own ignorance through lengthy and convoluted arguments. So while they desire to fly away with subtle words, they vanished like owls in the light.

87. The bat, an unknown creature, received its name from flying at dusk. It is both a flying and a four-legged animal, and it uses teeth that you would not find in other birds. It gives birth to live young, like four-legged animals, rather than laying eggs. It flies in the air like other birds, but it is accustomed to flying at dusk. However, it flies not with feathers, but with the support of its membrane, with which it hovers and moves about as if it were flying with feathers. And there is also this lowly creature, which cling to each other and hang from a certain place like a cluster of grapes: and if one of them lets go, they all come apart. This is accomplished by a certain act of charity, which is difficult to find among the people of this world.

Moreover, the song of the rooster is pleasant in the nights; not only pleasant, but also helpful, as it acts like a good companion and awakens the sleeping, reminds the anxious, and comforts the traveler, announcing the progress of the night with its melodious call. While it sings, the thief abandons his traps; while it sings, Lucifer himself rises, illuminating the sky; while it sings, the worried sailor casts off his sorrow, and every evening storm and tempest calm down with its frequent breezes; while it sings, devout devotion springs forth for prayer and also renews the task of reading; and finally, while it sings, the very rock of the Church washes away its own guilt, which it had previously incurred by denial before the rooster's crowing. With this song, hope returns to everyone, the inconvenience of the sick is relieved, the pain of wounds is diminished, the burning of fevers is mitigated, faith is restored to the fallen, Jesus looks upon the wavering, corrects the wandering. Finally, he looked at Peter, and immediately the error disappeared: the denial was rejected, followed by the confession. This did not happen by chance, but the reading teaches that it happened according to the will of the Lord. For it is written, because Jesus said to Simon: The rooster will not crow until you deny me three times (Matthew 26:34). Peter, although strong during the day, is troubled at night; and he falls before the crowing of the rooster, and he falls a third time; so that you may know that it is not a thoughtless slip of speech, but also a disturbance of the mind. However, after the crowing of the rooster, he becomes stronger, and now worthy to be seen by Christ: for the eyes of the Lord are upon the righteous. He recognized that a remedy had come, after which he could no longer err: and transformed from error into virtue, he wept bitterly; so that his tears might wash away his mistake.

Chapter XXV.

The Author's Pious Prayer. Commendation of Tears. Dismissal of the Hearers for Refreshment. Finally, Invitation to the Mysteries of the Lord's Body.


89. Look upon us also, Lord Jesus, that we may acknowledge our own errors, release our guilt with pious tears, and deserve the forgiveness of our sins. Therefore, we have deliberately prolonged our speech, so that the rooster may also crow for us and come to our aid when we speak, so that if any offense has slipped into our words, you, Christ, may forgive the guilt. Please grant us the tears of Peter, for I do not desire the joy of the sinner. The Hebrews wept and were freed through the parting waters of the sea. Pharaoh rejoiced because he had the Hebrews enclosed, and he drowned them in the sea with his own people. Judas also rejoiced in the reward of his betrayal, but he hanged himself with the noose of that same reward. Peter wept for his mistake, and he deserved to erase the mistakes of others.

90. But now it is the time when we should end our speech and close it: it is the time when it is better to be silent or weep: it is the time when the forgiveness of sins is celebrated. Let this mysterious rooster also sing for us in our sacred rites; for now Peter's rooster has already sung in our discourse. Let Peter weep for us, who wept well for himself and may he turn Christ's merciful face towards us. May the passion of Jesus the Lord hasten, which daily forgives our sins and performs the gift of remission.


91. The Lord does not want to send away the hungry, so that no one faints on the way. If he says, I have compassion for this crowd; for they have persevered with me for three days, and have nothing to eat, and I do not want to send them away hungry, lest they faint on the way (Matth., XV, 32); to which Mary, who was intent on his words, refused the preparations of a feast: how much more should we consider that there are not many who live by the word of God, and therefore the nourishment of the body is desired! Certainly, our work on the following day of those three days is more laborious.

92. And therefore, let us now sing the mysteries of the Lord, having played with the birds, having sung with the rooster, and let the eagles, renewed by the washing of sin, come to the body of Jesus. For that great whale has now returned Jonah to us: and let us rejoice that evening has become for us the fifth day; may the morning become for us the sixth day.

Book Six. Of the Work of the Sixth Day.

Chapter I. (Sermo IX.)

The difficulty of this last topic is explained by the example of contestants in public games; and attention is won by the pleasantness and usefulness of the matters under consideration.


This is the sixth day, on which the origin of worldly creatures is concluded; and therefore also the end of our discourse, which we have taken from the beginnings of things, is being prepared. Although it has progressed for the past five days with considerable effort for us; nevertheless, on this day, the burden of cares increases, because there is danger in this day and in the previous days, and the whole outcome of the struggle is at stake. For even if on the lyre or in singing and in the frequent and great contests of athletes, the previous days pass without any expense of a garland, but the last day has the fate of the garland, in which there is both the danger of deciding, and the disgrace of yielding, and the reward of winning: the more in this contest of wisdom, with the judgment not of a few but of all, when today a kind of garland of the struggle proceeds for us, the greater anxiety weighs upon us; lest we pour out the effort of the previous days, and undergo the shame of the present. For the conditions of speaking and singing, or wrestling, are not the same; for in those there is the risk of stumbling, in this the danger of death. If one makes a mistake there, it is a source of annoyance for the spectators; here, it is a loss for the listeners.

Therefore, judges, assist me like a crown and enter with me into this great and admirable theater of the whole visible creation. For if someone who explores the new arrivals of guests shows them around the entire extent of the city, pointing out the most excellent works, he earns considerable gratitude; how much more should you receive without disdain, as if I were leading you by the hand, the homeland that we share in common, and I show you the various species and genera of individual things, seeking to gather from all of them, how much more abundant grace the Creator of the universe has bestowed upon you than upon all others. Therefore, this wreath is presented to you, and today I desire to crown you with your own judgment. For we are not seeking fading garlands like athletes, but rather the green test of your holiness; by which you may judge that divine providence permeates through all creatures, but with you especially it is a shared participation in bodily frailty, yet before all else, you are distinguished by the virtue of your mind, which alone has nothing in common with others.

Chapter II.

Ambrose joins in the discussion of the nature of animals: he teaches that Scripture should be taken at face value: he establishes a comparison between himself and a poor guest: he warns against searching for curious questions; and he confirms this point with the example of Moses.


Now then, let us discuss the nature of animals and the generation of man. For I have heard some whispering for quite some time now, saying: How long will we learn about others and not know ourselves? How long will we be taught about the knowledge of other creatures and remain ignorant of ourselves? Let him speak what is profitable for me, so that I may know myself. And the complaint is just: but the order must be preserved which Scripture has woven together; at the same time, because we cannot know ourselves fully unless we first know the nature of all living beings.


And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living soul according to its kind, quadrupeds, and serpents, and beasts of the earth, according to their kinds, and all creeping things. And God made the beasts of the earth according to their kinds, and cattle, and everything that creepeth on the earth, according to its kind. And God saw that it was good, and he said: Let us make man (Gen. I, 24, 25, 26). In this place, I am not unaware that some have attributed certain species of beasts, cattle, and serpents of the earth to other things; so that they may refer to the enormities of crimes, the foolishness of sins, and the wickedness of thoughts: but I take the simple natures of each kind.


Nor am I afraid that anyone may consider me presumptuous in inviting many guests of low position, for I invite them out of a love of humanity, and I serve them nothing but cheap and ordinary food. I am more likely to incur disapproval from my guests for the simplicity of my table than to receive thanks for my hospitality. For the friends of Elisha did not reject him as a bad dinner guest when he served them rustic vegetables (2 Kings 4:39). This simile of empty relationships is a careful and accurate feast, in which the appearance of pheasants or turtledoves is presented, and inside, a chicken is eaten or a chicken is brought in, and it is stuffed with oysters or mussels; or a drink is consumed that changes in color and smell to different tastes: sea creatures are mixed with land creatures, and land creatures are stuffed with sea creatures. This is a criticism of the providence of the Creator, who has given us everything for sustenance, but has not mixed them together: but these things seem sweet at first, and then they become bitter. For the more excessive luxury there is, the more harmful intemperance becomes. However, Elisha added bitterness, but afterwards sweetness followed. Finally, those who had considered death in that food, afterwards obtained the pleasantness and grace of life in it.

6. Nor is there any fear, lest it should appear that I have invited more guests than I can feed, and that my words should fail you; for even Elisha, though truly deserving to be imitated by us with unhesitating faith, did not consider how many loaves he had, but was willing to divide what he had among all, and thought it sufficient for all. (Ibid., 42). Therefore, he commanded his servant to divide ten barley loaves among the people. And the servant said, 'What, shall I give this before the sight of a hundred men?' And he answered, Give them food yourselves, for thus says the Lord: They shall eat and have some left (same reference). So your faith will make a banquet for the poor of speech abundant. I am not afraid that your fasting will make you more gluttonous; rather, that when you are filled and hungry and empty, you will return, for it is written: The Lord strengthens the righteous, and they shall be satisfied in the days of famine (Psalm XXXVI, 17 and 79). It is much more beautiful to not be ashamed of barley bread and to offer what you have, than to deny. Elisaeus, who left nothing for himself, abounded with people. Elisaeus, therefore, did not hesitate to offer barley bread; we are ashamed to understand simple creatures, which are declared by simple and their own words! We read the sky, let us accept the sky; we read the earth, let us understand the fruitful earth.

7. What good is it for me to seek what is the measure of its circumference, which mathematicians have estimated to be 180,000 stadia? I willingly admit that I do not know what I do not know, and indeed that knowing it would be of no benefit. It is better to know the types of lands than the spaces that, with the sea surrounding them, the Barbarian regions in between, and the difficult-to-traverse swamps covering them, how can we comprehend? The Scripture demonstrates that this is impossible for humans, with God saying: 'Who has measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, or with the breadth of his hand marked off the heavens, or enclosed the whole earth in his hand?' Who determined the mountains in a balance and the hills in a scales, and the forests in a yoke? (Isaiah, 40:12). And below: Who stretches out the earth like a curtain and its inhabitants like locusts? Who established the heavens as a canopy? (Ibid., 22). Therefore, who dares to claim equal power and knowledge with God, and presume to have the understanding of what God, in His majesty, has revealed as His own?

Certainly Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians: but because he received the Spirit of God, he disregarded that empty and usurping philosophy of truth and wrote down for me the things he deemed fitting for our hope, namely that God made the earth, that the earth produced plants according to the command of the almighty God, and the work of the Lord Jesus, and every living creature according to its kind. But he did not think it necessary to discuss how much space the shadow of the earth occupies in the air when the sun recedes from us and takes away the day, illuminating the lower parts of the axis; and how when the globe of the moon falls into the region of the shadow of this world, it causes an eclipse; because what passes by, having no profit for us, is as good as nothing. For he saw in the Holy Spirit that some fading vanities of wisdom should be followed, which occupy our minds with inexplicable things and waste our effort, but rather those things should be described which pertain to the progress of virtue.

Chapter III.

For living creatures to adhere to the law of generation imparted by God in the succession of species. It is undeniable that there is truth in the nature of those things which are born: but it is shameful for man to imitate the life of a beast. Finally, there follows an explanation of certain vices, which are familiar to and therefore ought to be avoided by certain animals.

9. Therefore, let us hold fast to the prophetic sayings and not treat the words of the Holy Spirit with contempt. 'Let the earth bring forth living souls of cattle, of beasts, and of reptiles,' it says. Why do we argue otherwise when it is clearly the nature of earthly creatures to be formed? For the Word of God runs through the whole constitution of the world, so that suddenly from the earth all the creatures that God has ordained may come forth, and in the future, according to the prescribed law, they may succeed one another according to their kind and likeness, so that the lion may produce a lion, the tiger a tiger, the ox an ox, the swan a swan, and the eagle an eagle. Once the precept has taken root in nature forever. And therefore, the earth does not cease to offer the service of its ministry, so that the ancient species of animals may be regenerated in a new succession of ages.

But do you want to derive things that are born for the use of humans? Do not deny the truth that is proper to each kind of nature, and even more you will adapt them to human pleasure. First, because nature has thrown down all kinds of livestock, wild animals, and fish into the belly; so you see that some crawl on their bellies, others are supported by their feet, the more quadrupedal have a gait that is more immersed in the earth and it seems as if they are fixed to the ground, rather than free. For indeed, since they do not have the ability to stand erect, they require food from the earth and they pursue only the pleasures of the belly. Beware, oh man! Do not bend like a beast. Beware of being drawn not so much by the body as by desire. Look at the shape of your body and assume a form that is appropriate for lofty strength. Let only animals be inclined to be fed on the ground. Why do you lay yourself low in eating, when nature did not bring you down? Why do you take pleasure in what is against nature? Why do you spend your nights and days focused on food, feeding on earthly things like animals? Why do you dishonor yourself by indulging in physical allurements, while serving your belly and its passions? Why do you take away the understanding that the Creator has given you? Why do you compare yourself to animals, from which God wanted you to be separate, saying: Do not become like the horse and the mule, which have no understanding (Ps. XXXI, 9)? Or if the gluttony of the horse and the intemperance of the mule delight you, and it pleases you to neigh after women, let your jaws be bound by a bit and be confined in a stable. If cruelty feeds you, this is the madness of wild animals, which are slaughtered because of their savagery; see that your own cruelty does not turn into monstrousness within you.


11. The lazy donkey, exposed to prey, and slower in his senses, teaches us nothing else but that we ought to be more lively, and not to become sluggish in laziness of body and mind, and to resort to faith, which has been accustomed to alleviate heavy burdens.

12. Is it not evidence of a useless creature and worthy of hatred due to its stealing, contempt due to its weakness, and therefore unsuspecting of its own safety while it lies in wait for another's?

13. The cunning partridge that snatches the eggs of another, that is, of another partridge, and incubates them with its own body; but it cannot enjoy the fruits of its deceit; because when it brings forth its chicks, it loses them; because when they hear the voice of the one who produced the eggs, they abandon those and naturally and lovingly seek refuge with her, whom they recognize as their true mother through the act of egg generation; signifying that she performs the role of a nurse, while the other is the parent. Therefore, in vain does she pour forth her own labors, and she is punished by the price of her deceit. Hence Jeremiah also says: 'The partridge cried and gathered what it did not hatch' (Jer., XVII, 11), meaning, she gathered eggs and cried out as if triumphing in the effect of her deceit. But she is playing a game; because she brings forth, through great labor, others whom she herself has animated with persistent care. The devil is an imitator of this, who strives to steal the generations of the eternal Creator; and if he is able to gather any foolish and self-absorbed individuals through his power, nourishing them with bodily delights, where the voice of Christ has been infused into little ones, they depart and turn to that mother, who embraces her offspring with a motherly love like a bird. For the devil gathered the pagans, whom he had not created: but when Christ sent out his voice in his Gospel, they especially turned to him, whom he himself received under the shadow of his wings, and gave them to be nurtured by the Mother Church.

14. The lion, proud of his own nature, does not know how to mix with the fierce species of other wild animals: but, like a certain king, he disdains the company of many. He even despises yesterday's food and rejects the remains of his own meal. However, which wild beast would dare to associate with him, whose voice naturally contains such great terror; so that many animals, which could escape his attack through their speed, are astonished and struck down by the roar of his voice, as if by some force?


15. For even the pard's appearance does not keep silent about the various colors of its coat, which indicate the various movements of its own soul. For Jeremiah says: 'Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?' (Jer. 13:23). This is not only understood about appearance, but also about the mobility of rage; for the people of the Jews, having been discolored by the dark and restless and fickle changes of an untrustworthy mind and soul, can no longer hold onto the grace of good intention, nor can they return to any kind of amendment and correction, once they have put on a bestial savagery.

Chapter IV.

On the remarkable nature of certain animals in avoiding harm to themselves and pursuing what is beneficial, and on the natural virtues that we ought to imitate in them.


However, there is also in the nature of quadrupeds a prophetic speech that exhorts us to imitate, by which example we avoid laziness and do not turn away from the study of virtue due to the smallness or weakness of the body, nor are we drawn back from the magnitude of any purpose. For even the ant is small, yet it dares with its own strength to undertake greater things; nor is it compelled to work by servitude, but it prepares future supplies of food for itself by its own foresight. The Scripture urges you to imitate the industry of the ant, saying: Consider the ant, O sluggard, and imitate its ways, and be wiser than it (Proverbs, 6:6). For the ant possesses no property, and does not have someone to force it or act as its master. Yet it prepares food by storing the harvest of your labors for itself; and while you often lack, it does not. It has no closed granaries, no impenetrable protections, no inviolable storehouses. The guard watches but dares not prevent thefts: the owner sees his losses and does not seek retribution. The prey is carried through the fields in a black column, the roads sizzle with the crowd of wayfarers, and large quantities of grain that cannot be contained by a wide mouth are pushed with their shoulders. The master of the harvest observes these things and is ashamed to deny the profits of honest industry.

17. But what shall I say about the dogs, to whom it is ingrained by a certain nature to show gratitude and pretend anxious guard for the safety of their masters? Hence Scripture cries out against those ungrateful for kindness and lazy and idle: 'Dumb dogs, who cannot bark' (Isaiah 56:10). So there are dogs who know how to bark for their masters, who know how to defend their own dwelling places. Therefore, you too learn to raise your voice for Christ, when heavy wolves invade the sheepfold of the Church. Learn to hold the word in your mouth, so that you do not seem to have abandoned the custody of faith like a mute dog with the silence of transgression. Such a dog is a traveler and companion of angels, whom Raphael in the prophetic book thought it was not without purpose to join to himself and to the son of Tobias, when he went to chase away Asmodaeus and to strengthen the conjugal bond (Tob. VI, 1, and XI, 9). For with the grace of a mindful affection, the demon is driven away and the marriage is established. The holy angel Raphael, in the guise of a mute beast, instructed the young Tobias, whom he had taken upon himself to protect, about the experience of grace. For who would not be ashamed not to repay gratitude to those who deserve it well, when even beasts are seen to shun the crime of ingratitude? And those animals preserve the memory of the bestowed nourishment, do you not preserve the memory of the received salvation?

18. Although the bear, as the Scripture says (Lamentations 3:10), is a crafty animal, it is known to give birth to shapeless offspring and then mold them with its tongue into its own likeness. Are you surprised by the acts of a wild animal with such a loving disposition, which expresses its nature through kindness? Therefore, just as the bear molds its offspring to resemble itself, can you not mold your own children to be like you?

19. Moreover, he did not neglect the practice of healing. For when deeply affected by a wound, he knows how to heal himself with a certain herb called φλόμος by the Greeks, applying it to his sores; they are cured by contact with the herb alone. Likewise, the snake repels blindness by feeding on fennel, except when it is already afflicted. Therefore, when it feels its eyes starting to dim, it seeks the well-known remedies and is not deceived by their effects. The tortoise, having eaten the innards of a snake, exercises the medicine of its own health when it perceives the poison trying to spread; even though it is submerged in marshy waters, it nevertheless knows how to cure itself with its own antidote, and it proves that the powers of herbs themselves can know how to support its health. You see also a fox with a tearful little pine tree healing itself, and with such a remedy prolonging the time of impending death.

The Lord Himself cries out in the book of Jeremiah: The turtle dove and the swallow and the field sparrows have kept the times of their coming: but my people have not known the judgments of the Lord (Jer., XVIII, 7). The swallow knows when it comes, and when it returns. The pious bird also knows how to announce its coming with the testimony of true signs. The ant also knows how to explore the times of tranquility; for when it perceives that its fruits are moistened by the wet rain, it carefully examines the air to determine when it can preserve a constant temperature, it opens its storehouses and carries out supplies from their caves on its shoulders; so that its own grain may be dried by the constant sun. Finally, you will not see rains breaking from the clouds on all those days, unless the ant has gathered its own grain in its storehouses. Cows, with rain impending, have learned to keep themselves at the mangers. Likewise, when they have observed the change of the sky with their natural sense, they look outside and stretch their necks beyond the mangers, all in the same manner, so as to show that they want to come out. The sheep, under the approach of winter, greedily snatch the grass for food, because they anticipate the roughness of the upcoming winter; in order to stuff themselves with grass beforehand, before all the grass fails when the frost sets in. This hedgehog, which is commonly called a sea-urchin, when it senses any danger, closes itself up with its spines and gathers its weapons around itself, so that whoever touches it is wounded. And the same hedgehog, foreseeing the future, provides itself with two ways to breathe; so that when it senses that the North wind will blow, it blocks the Northern passage, and when it knows that the clouds of the air will be cleared by the South wind, it moves towards the North, so that the winds may veer away from it and not harm it.


21. Therefore, Prophet offered a worthy praise to the Lord, saying: How magnified are your works, O Lord! You have done everything with wisdom (Ps. CIII, 24). Divine wisdom penetrates and fills everything: this is more clearly understood from the senses of irrational creatures than from the reasoning of rational creatures. For the testimony of nature is stronger than the argument of doctrine. For an animated being, it is unknown how to safeguard its own well-being: if it has strength, by resisting; if it has speed, by fleeing; if it has cleverness, by taking precaution? Who taught us the knowledge of using medicinal herbs? We are humans, and often deceived by the appearance of herbs, and usually the ones we think are beneficial, we discover are harmful. How many times has a deadly food slipped among the sweet feasts, and during the very watchful guard of royal attendants, has a deadly meal penetrated the vital organs of kings? Wild animals know how to distinguish between harmful and beneficial by smell alone: no advance testing, no taster takes a bite of the herb, nor does it harm. Nature is indeed the best teacher of truth. Without the guidance of anyone, it infuses the sweetness of health into our senses, and teaches us to avoid the bitterness of pain. Hence life becomes sweeter, and death becomes more bitter. Nature encourages lionesses to care for their cubs, and softens the wild beast with maternal affection. Nature tames the fierceness of tigers, and turns their attention away from imminent prey. For when a stolen brood has been found, she immediately follows the footprints of the thief. But he, though carried by a swift horse, seeing that he could surpass the speed of the wild animal, and that no aid of escape could be available to him, contrives a trick of this kind. When he sees it near him, he throws a glass sphere: but it is deceived by the illusion of itself, and believes it to be its offspring, and recalling its attack, it desires to gather its offspring. Again, with the empty appearance retained, it pours out all its strength to seize the horseman, and, spurred on by anger, it threatens the fleeing one with even greater swiftness. He again delays the object of the sphere; yet he does not exclude the memory of his mother's diligence from his mind: he turns the empty image around and dwells as if on a lactating fetus. Thus deceived by his own piety, he loses both vengeance and offspring.

22. What Scripture offers us, which says: Children, love your parents; parents, do not provoke your children to anger (Colossians 3:20). Nature instills this in animals, that they love their own young, they cherish their offspring. They do not know stepmotherly hatred, nor are parents corrupted by changing partners, nor do they know how to prefer the children of a later union and neglect those of a previous one. They know their own offspring, they do not know the difference of love, the incentives of hatred, the divisions of offenses. The nature of wild animals is simple, they do not know the calumnies of truth. For God has so arranged all things, that to those to whom He has given less reason, He has granted more indulgence of emotions. Which wild animal would not offer itself primarily for the death of its own offspring? Which wild animal, even though its offspring may be besieged by countless wedges of armed men, does not protect them with its own entrails? Although a multitude of weapons may threaten, it still provides its little ones, enclosed by the wall of its own body, with immunity from danger. What does a man say who neglects a command, he denies his nature! A son despises his father, a father disowns his son; and they think this is right, where fertility is condemned: rather the father condemns himself, who renders what he begot void. And this is considered authority, where the nature of sterility is mutilated.

23. No one doubts that the dog is an example of reason; however, if you consider the intensity of its senses, you may think that it acquires the power of reasoning through its keenness of perception. In fact, what few individuals who have spent their entire lives in schools were barely able to comprehend, namely to weave together the connections of syllogisms, this a dog can easily estimate through its natural learning. For when it discovers the track of a hare or a stag, and it reaches a crossroads on the path, and a certain junction where the path is divided into many parts; silently, it examines the beginnings of each path, as if emitting a syllogistic voice by the keenness of its sense of smell, deducing. Either he turned in this direction, he said, or in that; or certainly he turned into this winding path: but he did not enter that path, nor this one either: therefore it remains that without hesitation he turned into this path. What humans assemble with lengthy meditation of an arranged art, dogs possess by nature; that they detect lies before, and after rejecting falsehood, they find the truth. Don't philosophers spend whole days dividing propositions for themselves in the dust, marking each one with a ray, and since out of the three it is necessary for one of them to be true, they first eliminate the two that agree with falsehood as if they were lies, and thus they define that the force of truth adheres to what remains? Who can be so steadfast in their benevolence and mindful of gratitude? Considering they know how to leap upon robbers for their master, and to prohibit the nocturnal approach of strangers, and to die for their masters, and to die alongside their masters. Often, even the evidence of inflicted death dogs have revealed clues to expose the guilty; so much so that their testimony is usually believed.

24. They say that in a remote part of Antioch, a man was murdered at twilight, who had a dog attached to him. A certain soldier had arisen as a servant of plunder: he had withdrawn to other parts covered in the same darkness at the dawn of the day: the unburied corpse lay, a crowd of spectators stood around, the dog wept with a mournful howl over his master's misfortune. By chance, the one who had inflicted the death, as is the cunning of human nature, in order to gain the belief of innocence by daring to move in the midst of authority, approached that circle of watching people and, as if pitying, came near to the funeral. Then the dog, having temporarily taken on the role of a mediator, with a mournful cry, took up the weapons of revenge, and seized the apprehended and, like a kind of tragic ending, turned everyone into tears, brought forth evidence for the sake of proving his loyalty, which he alone maintained among many, and did not let go. Ultimately, the disturbed man was unable to refute the accusation any longer, as he could not dismiss the clear evidence of the matter, without any motive of hatred, enmity, envy, or injury. Therefore, he pursued revenge, because he could not provide a defense. What do we, who feed on the nourishment of our Creator, consider worthy of Him, as we overlook injuries and often offer feasts to the enemies of God, those same ones we received from God?

25. What is simpler than little lambs, whom we compare to the innocence of small children? Often from these, a little lamb wanders throughout the entire flock, searching for its mother, and when it is unable to find her, it calls out with frequent bleating to summon her response, so that it may follow her wandering footsteps until it hears her voice: even though it may be surrounded by a multitude of sheep, it recognizes the voice of its parent, hastens to its mother, and seeks out the familiar sources of mother's milk: though it may be filled with desire for food and drink, it nevertheless passes by the full udders of other mothers, even though they overflow with milk; it seeks only its own mother, and by desiring the poor juices of its mother's udder, it indicates that they are abundant for it alone. Among the many thousands of lambs, she also knows only her own son; one cries the most, the same species; however, she distinguishes her own offspring from the others and recognizes her only son with a silent testimony of affection. The shepherd errs in the discernment of sheep, but the lamb does not know how to err in recognizing its mother. The shepherd can be deceived by appearance: but the sheep is not deceived by affection. One smell for all, but nevertheless it has its own domestic smell that the dear offspring seems to emit with a certain special property.


26. Nature has its uses, and household senses. Barely beginning to break through teeth, even an infant already knows how to test its own weapons. Not yet with teeth like a dog, and yet it seeks revenge with its own mouth. Not yet with horns like a deer, and yet it playfully threatens with its forehead, and the weapons it hasn't yet experienced. If a wolf sees a human first, it takes away their voice, and with the voice taken away, it despises them like a victorious one. Likewise, if it senses that it has been foreseen, it abandons its fierceness, it cannot run. The lion fears the rooster and especially the white one. The injured goat seeks a medicinal herb and removes the arrows from the wound. The animals also know their remedies. The sick lion seeks a monkey to devour, so that he may be healed. The leopard drinks the blood of the wild goat and avoids the force of illness. Every sick wild animal is healed by drinking the blood of a dog. The sick bear devours ants. The deer chews on olive twigs.

27. Therefore, wild beasts know how to seek those things that are advantageous to themselves; you, o man, are ignorant of your remedies! You do not know how to snatch virtue from your opponent, so that, like a wolf overcome by surprise, he cannot escape, so that with the eye of your mind you may detect his treachery, and impede the course of his words beforehand, dull his impudence and the sharpness of his argument. But if he should get ahead of you, he takes away your voice; and if you remain silent, he strips off your cloak, so that you may release your speech. And if a wolf rises against you, take the rock, and flee. Your rock is Christ. If you take refuge in Christ, the wolf will flee and cannot terrify you. This rock was sought by Peter when he staggered in the waves, and he found it; for he embraced the right hand of Christ.

28. Why, I ask, do people find pleasure in garlic, and take as food that which even a leopard avoids? In any case, if anyone believes that garlic should be rubed, a leopard leaps from it and does not resist. This venomous beast cannot bear the smell, but you take it as food and pour it into your inner organs? But it is sometimes used to cure pain. It should be taken as medicine, not as food: it should be taken by the sick, not by those who are feasting. You seek a remedy and avoid fasting, as if you could find a better remedy. If a fasting person's saliva is consumed by a snake, it dies. You see the great power of fasting, that a person can kill an earthly serpent with their own saliva, and rightly so, a spiritual one.

29. The Lord has also infused wisdom into little creatures! The turtle covers its nest with leaves so the wolf doesn't attack its chicks. It knows that wolves are accustomed to fleeing from such leaves. The little fox knows how to nurture its offspring, but you are ignorant, you disregard how to have a safer future against the spiritual wolves of this life's wickedness.

Chapter V.

By what reason did the Lord create shorter necks for some animals and longer necks for others? Where are the characteristics, properties, and uses of elephants described, particularly in military matters?

But let us return to the order of creation, and consider in what manner the Lord has formed the necks of certain beasts to be shorter, such as lions and tigers, and also bears; and of others to be longer, such as elephants and camels. Is it not evident that the reason is because those wild animals which feed on flesh did not require a long neck? For they do not cast down their necks and mouths to the ground for the purpose of grazing, but either they attack deer, or they tear apart cows and sheep. But since the camel is taller, how would it feed on very small plants unless it extended its long necks down to the ground for grazing? Therefore, the camel, based on its height, has acquired longer necks, the horse has acquired them based on its needs, and likewise the ox; for they feed on grass.

31. The elephant also has a prominent trunk; because it is taller than all the other animals, it cannot bend down to graze. Therefore, it uses the assistance of a servant to gather food. This enormous animal pours a generous amount of fluid into its trunk; this is why it is concave, so that it can draw water from full lakes to quench its thirst, or it can flood itself with a collected river while drinking. Its neck is certainly smaller than the weight of such a large body would require; so that it would not be more of a burden than a benefit. And so it does not bend its knees, because its legs needed to be more stiff, in order for such a great structure of limbs to be supported like columns. The heel curves slightly, while the rest of the foot remains rigid from top to bottom. And it cannot flex as we often lay down a shield, nor can the beast deflect so much; and rightly it cannot have a common use of rolling and bending with other animals. It is supported on both sides by very large beams so that it can tilt slightly without danger while sleeping, because its foot is not distinguished by any connection of joints. Therefore, certain supports are prepared for gentle animals, by which they are used here. But for wild and savage animals, since no such supports on which they can be sustained are provided, hence comes the use of danger.

For those who lean against a tree or rub their ribs, or relax themselves in sleep, when they are sometimes overcome and bent, they are broken by such a great body: truly, the one who had poured himself into the same [tree], falls and cannot raise and lift himself up; and lying there, he perishes, or, betrayed by his groaning, he is stretched out, while his belly and other softer parts are exposed to the wound. For his back and other outer parts do not allow any weapons to penetrate easily. However, there are those who, because of ivory, set these traps for them, so that they might cut off a little from the side to which the elephant is accustomed to lean, where its use is less frequent, in such a way that, when the elephant leans against it, it cannot support the weight of its limbs and brings about its own destruction.

33. But if someone criticizes those things, let them also criticize the height of buildings; because they threaten heavy ruin more quickly, and are more difficult to repair once they have fallen. But if we frequently raise those things either for the sake of beauty or for observation, we must also approve of them in elephants, because they serve a great use in military matters. Hence the fierce Persian nation in wars, strong in arrows and in every throw of weapons, because their weapons are thrown from higher to lower places with a stronger force, their battle line advances as if protected by advancing towers. In the midst of the fields, they fight as if from a wall; and as if positioned on a certain fortress and lookout, they watch the wars more than they engage in them. Thus they appear foreign from danger, protected by the fortifications of wild beasts. For who would dare to approach them, when they are easily struck down from above by javelins, and crushed below by the charge of elephants? Finally, opposing forces and the ranks of armed soldiers yield to them, and those square camps are dissolved. They rush against the enemy with an unbearable onslaught; as if not hindered by any formation of warriors, by any massing of troops, or by the shield-wall of enemies: as if certain mobile mountains are turning in battle, and, like hills with a high peak, they disturb the confidence of all with the roaring clamor of everyone. What can the feet do, though strong in the arms and ready in hand; when a wall of armed people encounters him as he walks? What can the horseman do, when his horse, frightened by the enormity of such a beast, flees? What can the archer do, when even though he cannot feel the impact of his javelin on the iron-clad bodies of men from above; and when the beast is not easily penetrated by a naked blade, but is protected by armor, it can cut through enemy ranks without danger to itself, and crush formations?


34. Therefore, just as immense buildings are supported by strong foundations, so too elephants are supported by stronger legs; otherwise, with their unequal feet, they would slip within a short period of time. But now they are able to live for three hundred years or more because all their limbs are suited to their size. Therefore, their limbs are not separate like ours, but rather compacted in order to be stronger. As soon as humans stand for a long time, run faster, or walk constantly, their knees and soles become worn out! For conjoined and articulated things are more easily susceptible to the sensation of pain or the occurrence of injury than things that are unified and solidified.

35. And why do you wonder, if they are feared when dressed in armor; since they are always armed with their teeth like natural spears? With their tusks, they can break whatever they wrap them around: but with their feet, they can crush whatever they step on, as if causing a great collapse. They wrap up forests with their tusks for their food, and like some great serpents, they lash out with their coiled tails. They often gather them into a circle, especially when food is gathered from the ground, or drink is consumed. Therefore, these documents are for us, that nothing superfluous has been created; and yet this beast of such great magnitude is subject to us, serving human commands.

Chapter VI.

The most strong and fierce beasts, subject to man by the Creator: the smallest animals are a terror and destruction to the same man. Then, after a few arguments about the usefulness of serpents, man is awakened to the knowledge of himself and his own soul.


For indeed, since we are about to speak of the creation of man, we ought to lay the foundation and preface his commendation. It seemed that no creature had anything stronger than elephants, nothing so terrifying or tall, nothing so wild as lions or tigers; and these serve man, and lay aside their natural disposition through human training. They forget what they are born for, they put on what they are commanded. Why more? They are taught like children, they serve like the weak, they are beaten like the timid, they are corrected like the submissive, they adopt our customs; since they have lost their own proper movements.


37. Therefore, nature is remarkable in great things; indeed, the Lord is remarkable in lofty things, and also remarkable in small things. For just as we marvel not only at the high peaks of mountains but also at the flatness of plains, and we are amazed not only by the height of a cedar but also by the short fertility of a vine or an olive tree, so I am no more astonished by an elephant because it is tall than I am by a mouse because it is terrifying to the elephant. Therefore, this is the power of nature: that some things are terrifying to others, and others are fearful. For a certain prerogative is granted to each creature, so that they are supported by their own particular privileges. The formidable elephant fears the tiny mouse. Indeed, the lion, the king of beasts, is tormented by the small sting of a scorpion and is killed by the poison of a snake. The extraordinary beauty of the lion shakes off flies with its flowing mane or raises its head with its lifted chest. But who would not marvel at the fact that with such a tiny sting of a scorpion, which you might think is insubstantial, death can come to creatures of great size?


And let no one censure this, because the Creator has mixed poisonous creatures and other types of animals or plants with His created beings. For these have been made for our correction, not for our harm. For those things which are usually a cause of offense and fear to the indolent, weak, or impious, are so useful to others, like tutors to little children. They seem to be loved, though they are bitter and troublesome. They are formidable by the scourge, denying freedom to indulge and demanding the necessity of discipline. They hold back childish minds from falling into luxury by means of terror; and so, by the severity of these things, they become frugal, sober, continent, more inclined to glory than play. Do you see what terrible blows these lashes achieve? In the same way, snakes are lashes for those of weak souls and a certain childish mentality is a virtue; however, they cannot harm stronger individuals. Finally, it was said with confidence in the Lord: You will walk over the asp and the basilisk and you will trample the lion and the dragon (Ps. XC, 13). Paul was bitten by a viper, and they thought that he, barely saved from the shipwreck, would die from the poison as a sinner; but afterwards, when the snake remained unharmed after being shaken off into the fire, it gained even more reverence from those who saw it. But the Lord himself also said to all: Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved; but whoever does not believe will be condemned (Mark, XVI, 6). He said that these signs would be for those who believe, so that they can handle serpents with their hands, and even if they drink poison or anything deadly, it will not harm them. Therefore, your disbelief, O man, is more to be feared than the venom of snakes. So fear those things, so that, at least when you fear them, they can prompt you to faith. But if you do not fear God, or dread the vengeful poison of treachery.

39. Now since you see elephants subject to you, and lions subject; know yourself, o man, that it is not, as they say, of Apollo Pythius, but of Solomon the holy, who says: Unless you know yourself beautiful in women (Song of Songs I, 7), although long before Moses wrote in Deuteronomy: Take heed to yourself, o man. Take heed to yourself (Deut. IV, 9), says the law. And the Prophet says: Unless you know yourself. To whom does he say this? Beautiful, he says, in women. What is beautiful in women, if not the soul, which possesses excellence of beauty in both sexes? And deservedly adorned is she, who desires not earthly but heavenly things, not corruptible but incorruptible, in which beauty does not perish. For all bodily things decay with the passage of time or the inequality of illness. Attend to this, says Moses, in which you are wholly, in which the better part of you is. Ultimately, the Lord interpreted who you are, saying. Beware of false prophets (Matthew 7:15); for they weaken the soul and undermine the mind. Therefore, you are not just flesh. For what is flesh without the guidance of the soul, the strength of the mind? Flesh is consumed today and discarded tomorrow. Flesh is temporary, the soul is eternal. Flesh is the garment of the soul, which puts on a kind of clothing in the form of a body. Therefore, you are not the garment, but the one who uses the garment. That is why it is said to you, to strip off the old self with its deeds and put on the new self, which is renewed not in the quality of the body, but in the spirit of the mind and knowledge (Colossians 3:10). No, I say, you are not flesh; for it is not said to the flesh: For the temple of God is holy, which you are (1 Corinthians 3:17). And elsewhere, You are the temple of God, and the Holy Spirit dwells in you (Ibid., 5): but it is said to both the renewed and faithful in whom the Spirit of God remains. However, it does not remain in the fleshly, because it is written: My spirit will not remain in these men, because they are flesh (Genesis 6:3).

Chapter VII.

The creation of man is initiated by the contemplation of the creator. It demonstrates that the son is the image of the Father and that unity and distinction are found between them. Finally, it warns man to know where he comes from, whose image he bears, and in which part he carries it.

40. But let us consider the order of our own creation. 'Let us make man to our image and likeness', He said (Gen., I, 26). Who is saying this? Is it not God, who made you? What is God? Flesh or spirit? Surely not flesh, but spirit, which cannot be like flesh; for He Himself is incorporeal and invisible, while flesh is comprehensible and visible. To whom is He speaking? Surely not to Himself, for He does not say 'Let me make', but 'Let us make'. Not to the angels, because they are ministers; but servants, however, cannot have a share of operation with a master, and works with an author: but God says to his Son: even if the Jews do not want it, even if the Arians resist. But let the Jews be silent, and let the Arians be silent with their parents, who exclude one from the participation in divine operation and include many; and they deny the prerogative to the Son, but give it to their servants.

41. But let this be understood: that it seems God has needed the help of servants to work. If work is common with the angels of God, is the image common to God and the angels? Would God say to the angels: Let us make man in our image, and after our likeness? But listen to what the image of God is saying: He has rescued us, he says, from the power of darkness and transferred us into the kingdom of his Son's glory, in whom we have redemption, the forgiveness of sins. He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation (Coloss. 1:13, et seq.). He is the image of God the Father, who always is, and was in the beginning. Indeed, he is the image who says: Philip, whoever sees me, sees the Father (John 14:8-9). And how can you say, 'Show us the Father,' when you see the living image of the living Father? Do you not believe that I am in the Father, and the Father is in me? The image of God is power, not weakness; the image of God is wisdom, the image of God is justice. But divine wisdom is, and eternal justice. The image of God is that one alone who said: I and the Father are one (John 10:30); having the likeness of the Father in such a way that he has unity of divinity and fullness. Where he says, let us make, how is there inequality? When he says again, in our likeness, where is there dissimilarity? So also in the Gospel where he says: I and the Father, surely there is not one person: but when he says, we are one, there is no discrepancy of divinity or work. Therefore, in both there is not one person, but one substance. And he added well, we are; because it is always divine to be, so that you believe him to be coeternal, whom you thought to be dissimilar. For he is eternal, of whom Moses says: 'He who is has sent me' (Exodus 3:14). He also well preceded it: I and the Father. For if he had preceded the Father, you would judge the Son to be lesser: but he preceded the Son, whom it is not fitting to believe is superior to the Father. He added, so that you may note that God the Father and His Son are not bound by the prejudice of order.

42. 'Take heed to thyself alone,' saith he (Deut., IV, 9). For we are one thing, our possessions are another, and those things which are about us are another. We are, that is to say, the soul and mind: the members of the body and its sensations are our possessions: but money, slaves, and the outfit of this life belong to those things which are about us. Take heed therefore to thyself, and know thyself, that is to say, not what brawn thou hast, nor what bodily strength, nor what possessions, nor what power, but what soul and what mind, whence all counsels proceed, to what end the fruit of thy acts is referred. For she is indeed full of wisdom, full of piety and justice; because all virtue comes from God. To her God says: Behold, I have painted your walls, O Jerusalem (Isaiah 49:16), she is the soul painted by God, which has the grace of virtues shining forth in it, and the splendor of piety. That soul is well painted, in which the image of divine operation shines forth. That soul is well painted, in which there is the splendor of glory and the image of the Father's substance. According to this shining image, the painting is precious. According to this image, Adam had before sinning; but when he fell, he put aside the image of heaven and took on the likeness of earth. But let us flee from this image, which cannot enter the city of God, for it is written: 'O Lord, You will bring their image to nothing in Your city' (Ps. 73:20). And an unworthy image does not enter, and the one who would enter is excluded; for it will not enter, as it is said, 'Nothing profane shall enter into it, nor anyone who tells lies or does abominations' (Rev. 21:27); but the one will enter into it whose name is written on the Lamb's forehead.


43. Therefore, our soul is in the image of God. In this, you are everything, O man; for without this, you are nothing, but earth, and you will return to the earth. Finally, so that you may know that without the soul the flesh is nothing: Do not fear, he says, those who can kill the body but cannot kill the soul (Matthew, X, 28). Why then do you presume in the flesh, when you lose nothing if you lose the flesh? But fear that, lest you deprive your soul of assistance. For what will a man give in exchange for his soul, in which there is not a small part of himself, but the entire substance of the human universe? This is the part by which you rule over the other living creatures of the earth and the air; this is in the image of God, while the body belongs to the likeness of beasts. In this is the emblem of pious imitation of the divine; in that is the lowly association with wild animals and beasts.

Chapter VIII.

In order to understand more clearly where the divine likeness resides, the qualities of both the body and the soul are examined. It is shown that the whole person is designated by the term 'soul'. Those who deface the image of God with deceit, cruelty, and treachery are rebuked. Under these headings, an exhortation to vigilance against vices, and a comparison between the poor and the rich concludes.


44. But let us consider more closely what it means to be in the image of God. Is the flesh also in the image of God? Therefore, the earth is in God; because the flesh is earth. Therefore, God is corporeal. Therefore, he is weak like flesh, and subject to passions. And perhaps you might think that the head is in the likeness of God, because it stands out: or the eyes, because they see: or the ears, because they hear. If you consider height, do we seem tall, because we slightly rise above the earth with our heads? But why should we not be ashamed, since we are said to be like God, either because we are taller than snakes and other creeping things, or because we are higher than deer and sheep and wolves? And how much more superior are camels and elephants to us in that regard? Truly, it is remarkable to behold the elements of the world, to know what no one else can proclaim, but only your gaze can discern. However, this is only what we see; so that we may say that we are like God in this respect, who sees everything, observes everything, detects hidden emotions, and explores the secrets of the heart. Is there no shame in saying this, when I myself cannot see my whole self? I can see what is in front of me; I cannot see what is behind me. I do not know my own neck, I do not know the back of my head, I cannot see my own kidneys. Likewise, how much is it that we hear; when it is something that is a little bit away, I cannot see and hear? If there are walls in between, vision is hindered, hearing is hindered. Furthermore, our body remains stuck in one place, enclosed in a narrow space. All animals are broader than humans, all are also faster.

45. Therefore, it is not the flesh that can be in the image of God, but our soul, which is free and wanders with diverse thoughts and deliberations, and by considering, looks at everything. Behold now, we are in Italy, and we think about things that seem to pertain to the Eastern or Western parts, and we seem to associate with those who are in Persia, and we see those who live in Africa, if that land has received any known to us: we follow those who depart, we cling to those who travel, we connect with those who are absent, we speak to those who are separated, we also revive the conversation with the deceased, and we embrace and hold them as if they were alive, and we perform the duties of life and bring them usefulness. Therefore, that is the image of God which is not estimated by bodily appearance but by the strength of the mind: it sees those who are absent, it traverses foreign lands with its gaze, it runs through with its sight, it examines hidden things, in an instant it carries its senses through the boundaries of the whole world and the secrets of the universe: it is joined to God, it adheres to Christ, it descends into hell, and ascends, it freely moves about in heaven. Finally, hear him saying: But our conversation is in heaven (Phil. III, 20). Therefore, is there not an image of God, in which God is always? But listen, because there is an image of God. For the Apostle says: So all of us, with unveiled faces, seeing the glory of the Lord as though reflected in a mirror, are being transformed into the same image from one degree of glory to another; for this comes from the Lord, the Spirit (2 Corinthians 3:18).

46. Therefore, since we know that the soul is in the image of God, let us now consider whether it can be said of the soul: Let us make man in our image. But listen to this, for the soul is called by the name of man. For it is written in Genesis: Now the sons of Joseph, who were born to him in Egypt, were nine souls. So all the souls that entered Egypt with Jacob were seventy-five (Gen. XLVI, 27). And much more appropriately, the soul or man is called in Latin, or in Greek ἄνθρωπος; one from humanity, the other having the power of sight, which undoubtedly pertains more to the soul than to the body. To what matter also that said right agrees, in the Lamentations of Jeremiah: The Lord is good to those who wait for him, to the soul that seeks him (Lam. 3:25). He spoke about men and thought that the soul should be added. For he seeks these things better if she is alone, drawing herself away from the filth of the body and from carnal desire. She herself is conformed to the image of God, similar to the Lord Jesus. But those who are conformed to the Son of God are holy. For we read as follows, with Paul speaking: And we know that all things work together for good for those who love God, who are called according to his purpose: those whom he foreknew and predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the firstborn among many brothers. And those whom he predestined, he also called; and those whom he called, he also justified; and those whom he justified, he also glorified. (Romans 8:30). Therefore, I ask you to answer whether justification seems to be conferred to you according to the body or according to the soul. But you cannot doubt that the righteousness from which justification is derived is of the mind, not of the body.

You are painted, therefore, O man, and painted by your Lord God. You have a good artist and painter. Do not destroy the good painting, shining not with paint but with truth, expressed not with wax but with grace. Erase the painting, woman, if you smear your face with material whiteness, if you drench it with acquired blush. That painting is not of beauty but of vice; that painting is not of simplicity but of deceit; that painting is temporary, it is wiped away by rain or sweat; that painting deceives and tricks; so that you may not please him whom you desire to please, for he understands that what pleases you is not your own but someone else's; and you may displease your creator, who sees that his work has been destroyed. Tell me, if you bring another artisan above a certain craftsman, who covers the work of that superior with new works, does not the one who knows that his work has been adulterated become indignant? Do not take away the image of God and assume the image of a harlot, for it is written: 'Then shall I take away the members of Christ and make them the members of a harlot?' (I Cor. VI, 15). But if anyone adulterates the work of God, he commits a grave crime. For it is a grave crime to think that a man can paint better than God. It is serious that God should say of you: I do not recognize my colors, I do not recognize my image, I do not recognize the face that I myself formed, I reject what is not mine. Seek the one who painted you: have fellowship with him, receive grace from him to whom you have given reward. What will you answer?

48. But if it is a serious matter to commit adultery against the work of God, what shall we say of those who kill the work of God, who shed human blood, who extort the life that God has given, who say: Let us destroy the Just One, for he is useless to us? Hence it is well said today: Foxes have dens, and birds of the air have nests where they may rest: but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head (Matth. VIII, 20). Therefore, the fox hides in a den, the bird takes refuge in a nest: man does not hide in a den, but he is deceived. But the eye of man is a pit, the chest of man is a deep pit, where harmful and deceitful counsels, evil thoughts are. You walk, and another prepares a pit for you. You walk in the midst of traps, which your enemies have hidden for you on the way. Therefore, look around everything, so that you may escape like a deer from nets, and like a bird from a trap. A deer avoids nets with agility: a bird avoids traps, if it flies to higher places and overcomes earthly things. For in the higher realms, no one sets out nets, no one hides a snare. Therefore, whoever's conversation is in the heavens, such a person does not tend to come into the capture as prey. But why are you surprised if a human is deceived by a human, when the Son of Man, where He would rest, had nowhere? And indeed, He made such a human in whom He would recline His head. But afterwards, when in our heart He began not to find rest but a pit; after one began to weave snares for another, whom he should have helped, Christ turned His head away from us: but afterwards He still chose to offer it to death for us. Therefore, do not be deceitful, cruel, or merciless; so that Christ may dwell within you as the head.

Finally, when He had made the creatures of the sea, when He had made the different kinds of wild animals and beasts, He did not rest, but He rested after making man in His image. In whom shall I rest unless it be upon the humble and quiet, and on him who trembles at my words (Isaiah 66:2)? Therefore, be humble and quiet, so that God may find rest in your heart. He did not find rest in the animals, so much more will He not find rest in a bestial heart. For there are bestial souls, there are beasts in human form, of whom the Lord says: Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep's clothing, but inside they are ravenous wolves (Matt. VII, 15). Therefore, God does not find rest in these, but finds rest in human conduct, which God made in his own image and likeness, when he created man who should not cover his head; for he is the image and glory of God. The soul of this man says: Behold, I have painted your walls, O Jerusalem (Isaiah 49:16). He did not say, I have painted your belly; he did not say, I have painted your private parts; but he said, I have painted your walls, asserting that he has given to man the defenses of walls so that if a vigilant watchman is at the gates, he can repel the danger of a siege. Therefore, he says: I have not given you pleasures, nor the allurements of desires, nor the incentives of luxury, nor the longing for another's beauty, but I have given you the foundations of walls, I have given you the lofty summits of towers, in which, once established, you may not fear being conquered by an enemy, nor be afraid of the formidable temptations of advancing legions. Finally, you have in Isaiah, where the righteous soul or the Church says, 'I am a fortified city, I am a besieged city' (Isaiah 27:3): fortified by Christ, besieged by the devil. But one should not fear the siege when Christ is the helper. For it is fortified by spiritual grace and besieged by worldly dangers. Hence, in the Song of Songs it is said: 'I am a wall, and my breasts are towers' (Song of Songs 8:10). The wall is the Church and its towers are the priests, who abound in both the word of nature and moral discipline.


50. Therefore, know yourself, beautiful soul; for you are the image of God. Know yourself, O man; for you are the glory of God. Hear how glorious [you are]. The prophet says, 'Your knowledge of me has become wondrous' (Psalm 138:6), that is, your majesty has become more wondrous in my work; in human counsel your wisdom is proclaimed. As I contemplate myself, whom you apprehend in the hidden and internal thoughts, I recognize the mysteries of your knowledge. Therefore recognize yourself, O man, how great you are, and take care of yourself, lest you become the prey of the hunting devil's snares; lest perhaps you fall into the jaws of that foul lion, who roars and prowls seeking whom he may devour. Take care of yourself, so that you may consider what enters into you, and what comes out of you. I am not speaking of food, which is consumed and expelled, but I speak of thoughts, I assert of speech. May not the desire for someone else's bed enter into you, may it not creep into your mind, may it not ravish your eyes the beauty of a passing woman, may the mind not enclose it, may your speech not weave the machines of temptations, may it not betray in deceit, may it not sprinkle your neighbor with reproach. God made you a hunter, not a conqueror, who said: Behold, I send many hunters (Jer. XVI, 16): hunters not of sin, but of absolution; hunters not of blame certainly, but of grace. Christ is the fisherman, to whom it is said: Henceforth you shall be a life-giving man (Luke V, 10). So send forth your nets, so send forth your eyes, so send forth your words: that you may not oppress anyone, but may raise up the struggling. Take heed to yourself, it says (Ecclus. XXVIII, 30). Stand firm, so that you do not fall; run in such a way that you may reach the prize; fight in such a way that you often conquer; for the crown is owed to the legitimate contest. You are a soldier, diligently scout the enemy; so that the nocturnal one does not creep upon you; you are an athlete, be closer to your opponent with your hands than with your face; so that he does not strike your eyes. Let your look be free, your gait sharp; so that you may pour out on the attacker, seize the one retreating, escape the wound with a watchful gaze, repel with a strong encounter. But if you are wounded, attend to yourself, run to the doctor, seek the remedy of repentance. Attend to yourself; for you have flesh, which quickly decays: let the good doctor of souls, the divine word, come to you, sprinkling the oracles of the Lord upon you like healing medicines. Attend to yourself, lest an evil hidden word be made in your heart: for it creeps like poison, and brings deadly contagion. Attend to yourself; lest you forget the God who made you, lest you take His name in vain.


51. Take heed to yourself, the law says, lest when you have eaten and are full, and have built houses and begun to live in them, and when your herds and flocks have multiplied, and you have an abundance of gold and silver, and all that you have is increased, your heart becomes proud and you forget the Lord your God (Deut. VIII, 12, et seq.). For what do you have, O man, that you have not received? Do not all these things pass away like a shadow? Is not your house dust and ruin? Are all these things not false? Is not the treasure of this age vanity? Are you not yourself dust? Look into the tombs of men, and see what will remain of you except dust and bones, that is, of your body: look, I say, and tell me who is rich there, who is poor? Distinguish the needy from the powerful. We are all born naked, we all die naked. There is no distinction among the corpses of the dead; unless perhaps that the bodies of the wealthy, swollen by excess luxury, stench more heavily. Whom did you hear died in poverty and misery? Poverty is beneficial to him: it exercises his body, not crushes it. However, we have not heard of a righteous person forsaken, and his descendants seeking bread; because the one who labors well in his own land, abounds in food. Therefore, take heed, oh wealthy person; for you also carry flesh like the poor.

52. Attend to yourself, poor one; for your soul is precious: and if mortal flesh, a temporary soul: and if you lack money, grace does not lack: and if there is no spacious house, widespread possession, heaven is open, the earth is free. The elements have been given to all in common, the ornaments of the world are open equally to the rich and the poor. Are not the faces of the heavens, adorned with shining stars, more beautiful than the most precious gold-leaf ceilings of luxurious houses? Are the riches of the rich wider than the expanses of the earth? Whence it was said to those who join house to house and villa to villa: Will you alone dwell upon the earth (Isaiah 5:8)? You have a larger house: the poor, in which you cry out and are heard. O Israel, says the prophet, how great is the house of God and its vast place of possession! It is great and boundless (Baruch 3:24-25). The house of God is common to the rich and the poor, yet it is difficult for the rich to enter the kingdom of heaven. But perhaps you are saddened that no gleaming light of golden lamps shines for you; but the moon shines for you with a much brighter light all around. Perhaps you complain about the winter, because no hypocausts are warmed by panting fires for you; but you have the warmth of the sun, which tempers the world for you and defends you from winter cold. Do you think those people are blessed who are crowded by a multitude of attending slaves? But those who seek their servants' feet are unable to use their own. Finally, a few are surpassed, many are carried. Unless perhaps you wonder about this, that they abound in gold, silver, money: how much you see them abound, how much they need you do not see. But you think it is precious to recline on ivory beds; and you do not consider that the earth is more precious, which for the poor spreads beds of grass, on which there is sweet rest, pleasant sleep, which he, laid on a golden bed, seeks throughout the whole sleepless night, and cannot find. How much more blessed does he judge himself while awake than while at rest! I pass over that which is far more excellent: because the just who has lacked here, will abound there; and he who has endured labor here, will have consolation there: but he who has received goods here, will not be able to hope for their reward there. Poverty indeed reserves its reward, wealth consumes it.

53. Therefore, pay attention to yourself, poor man, pay attention, wealthy man; because there are trials in both poverty and riches. And therefore the Wise Man says: Do not give me riches or poverty, give me only what is sufficient for me. Because riches, like feasts, stretch the stomach and the mind with worries and anxieties. And therefore he asks to be established with what is necessary and sufficient: Lest, he says, being filled, I become a liar and say: Who sees me? But if I become poor, I will commit theft and swear in the name of the Lord (Ibid.). Therefore, the temptations of the world must be avoided and guarded against; lest the poor despair and the wealthy become arrogant. For it is written: When you have driven out the nations and have taken possession of their land, do not say: My own power and the strength of my own hand have won this possession for me (Deut. VIII, 17). Thus is the one who ascribes his wealth to himself deemed deserving. And in this manner, he does not recognize his own error, but instead drags sin along with a long rope. For if one believes that the acquisition of money is either due to chance events or dishonest cunning, then there is no place for arrogance in those who have either no praise and empty labor, or for immodest desire ignorant of setting a limit to pleasure.

Chapter IX.

On the excellence of the human body and on the formation, arrangement, and functions of its individual members.

54. But now we must also speak of the body of man itself, which who would deny to be more excellent than others in beauty and grace? For although the substance of all earthly bodies seems to be the same, the strength and height are greater in some beasts: yet the form of the human body is more attractive, with an upright and lofty posture; so that it is neither excessively tall, nor petty and lowly: moreover, the very proportion of the body is pleasant and pleasing; so that neither monstrous size is terrifying, nor thinness weak and feeble.


And first of all, let us understand that the structure of the human body is like that of the world. Just as the sky towers over the air, the earth, and the sea, which are like certain members of the world, so too we see that the head stands out above the other parts of our body and is the most excellent of all, like the sky among the elements, like a citadel among the other fortifications of a city. In this citadel, a certain royal wisdom resides according to the prophetic saying: The eyes of the wise are in their head (Eccl., II, 14); this is the safest for the rest and from it strength and providence are derived for all the members. For what strength and power of the arms can achieve, what swiftness of the feet, if it is not supported by the power of the head, like the imperial authority of its ruler? For either all things are lacking or all things are supported by this. What can strength do, if it does not use the eye as its leader in battle? What can fleeing do if vision is absent? The body is a prison, terrifying in its dark condition; unless it is illuminated by the sight of the eyes. Therefore, just as the sun and moon are in the sky, so are the eyes in a human being. The sun and moon are the two lights of the world: but there are certain eyes that shine like stars on the surface, illuminating the lower parts with bright light, and not allowing us to be engulfed in darkness at certain times of the night. Some of our spies keep watch day and night. For they are awakened from sleep more quickly than the rest of the limbs, and when awake they observe everything; for they are closer to the brain, from which all the use of seeing flows. However, let no one believe hastily that I have descended here, because I commend the highest thing in a part when I speak of the eyes, which are not a foreign matter. It is certain that the eyes are a part of the head. Therefore, the head explores everything with the eyes, searches hidden things with the ears, knows secret things, and hears what others are doing on the earth.

56. But the very top of the head, how delightful and pleasing, how beautiful the hair, how revered in the elderly, how venerable in priests, how fearsome in warriors, how lovely in the young; how neat in women, how sweet in children? Long hair does not suit one gender, short hair does not suit another. From trees, one can estimate the grace of a human head. In the head of a tree, all fruit is found, there all beauty resides, its foliage either protects us from rain or shields us from the sun. Take away the hair from a tree, and the whole tree is ungrateful. Therefore, how much greater is the adornment of the human head, which protects and clothes our brain, that is, the seat and origin of our senses, with the hair of the head, so that it is not vexed by cold or heat? For there is the source of all things, and therefore where injury harms, there grace prevails.

57. What is a man without a head, when his whole being is in his head? When you see the head, you recognize the man: if the head is missing, there can be no recognition: the ignoble torso lies, without honor, without name. Only the heads of emperors, cast in bronze, and the images of leaders made of bronze or marble, are worshiped by men. Therefore, it is not without reason that the other limbs obey this like their advisor, and they bear it with servile actions as if it were a deity, and they elevate it to a high place. Under the power of censorship, he directs the actions of some slaves as he wishes, and decrees commands to be carried out by individuals. You see each one of his soldiers serving voluntarily without pay. Some carry, some feed, some defend, or fulfill their duty in their own way: they obey as subjects, they serve as slaves to their master. Hence, a certain order proceeds, which appoints the tasks that the hands should perform in completing works related to military service, and which discipline determines the form of abstaining or eating that the stomach should hold.


58. To this front, which is free, open in bare times, it reveals the appearance of its character: now joyful, now sadder: sometimes stern, sometimes more indulgent, which expresses the internal will with forensic signs. A certain image of the soul speaks in the face, the foundation of faith in which the name of the Lord is written and held daily. Two hedges of eyebrows follow it, which extend the protection to the eyes, and cover with grace; so that both the beauty of grace may be pleasing, and the diligence of protection may assist. For if anything dirty falls from the head, either sand dust, or mist of the cloud, or sweat from the damp hair, it is caught by the eyebrow, so that it does not disturb the delicate sight of the gentle eyes.

They adhere like the eyebrows to certain mountain ridges; so that, as if protected by the summit of the mountain, they may be safer, and, as if situated on a high point, may overlook everything from a certain superior scene. For it was not fitting for them to be lowly like the ears or mouth, and even the inner sinuses of the nostrils themselves. For a lookout is always from a high place, so that it can observe the arrival of hostile bands and prevent them from unexpectedly seizing either the peaceful population of the city or the army of the emperor. In this way, they also guard against the attacks of robbers, if scouts are positioned on the walls or towers or high mountain ridges, so that they can look down on the flat regions where the ambushes of the robbers cannot hide. Likewise, if someone on the sea sees that land is approaching, they climb to the tops of the masts, the high horns of the sails, in the very peak of danger, and from a distance they greet the land, which is still invisible to the rest of the sailors.


60. But perhaps you will say: If a higher watchtower was necessary, why were not the eyes placed on the very top of the head, as they are in crabs or beetles whose heads, though not visible, are yet higher than the rest of their body? But these animals have a strong shell, not such a delicate membrane as ours, which can easily be hurt and torn by external objects. There are other animals also of this kind. Some have the power of turning their eyes either towards the front or towards the back of their head, as horses, oxen, and almost all wild beasts; or towards their wings, as birds, that in time of safety may go to rest. But for us, it was necessary that the eyes be situated in the highest part of the body, like in a fortress, and be defended from any even small offense, which seemed contradictory. For if they were in a low position for protection, their function would be hindered; if they were in a high position, they would be exposed to injury. Therefore, in order for nothing to be taken away from the usefulness of their function, and for nothing to be overlooked for defending against injury, the eyes were placed in this location, where the eyebrows from above provide some protection, the raised cheeks below provide a considerable fortification, and they are separated internally by the nostrils, and externally by the prominence of the forehead and cheeks. And though they appear to be surrounded by the interconnected and even borders of bones, within these borders are the orbs of the eyes, both safe for protecting and free for seeing, and beautiful for ornamentation, shining like a crystal. In the middle of which are the pupils, who perform the function of seeing. These, in order not to be harmed by any accidental injury, are protected all around by a kind of wall formed by intertwining hairs. Therefore, begging for safe assistance to himself, the Prophet says: Guard me, O Lord, as the pupil of the eye (Ps. XVI, 8); so that he may receive as diligent and safe protection as the pupil of the eye, which he was pleased to defend with a most secure wall of nature. At the same time, because innocence and integrity, lightly besmirched, are violated, and the gift of grace is lost; and therefore it must be considered, so that no one may taint it with the dust of error, or disturb it with the stick of sin; for it is written: First remove the beam from your own eye, and then you will see clearly to remove the speck from your brother's eye (Matthew VII, 5).

Therefore, skilled medical practitioners believe that the brain of a human is located in the head for the purpose of sight, while the other senses of our body are situated in a nearby dwelling: the brain. For the brain is the origin of nerves and all voluntary movements of sensation, and from there stems the cause of everything we have mentioned. However, most people think that the beginning of arteries and the inherent heat, which vital organs are animated and warmed by, is the heart. But the senses of each individual are like the organs of the nerves, which, like strings and certain fibres, originate from the brain and are distributed throughout the different parts of the body according to their respective functions. Therefore, the brain is softer than the other parts because it receives all the senses; hence, all the nerves are connected to it and everything that the eye sees, the ear hears, the nose smells, the tongue tastes, or the mouth perceives as touch is referred to it. For what is soft is more inclined to compassion, but what is hard, due to the rigidity of the nerves, is more disposed to action.


62. It is also the most excellent function of hearing, and above all grace to the sight. Therefore, the ears are more prominent, so that they may both bring forward the adornment and catch everything that has flowed from the crown of filth or moisture; at the same time, so that the voice, resounding in their cavities without offense, may enter the inner recesses. For if it were not so, who would not be astonished and rendered deaf by every loud sound; since we frequently experience that we become deafened by a sudden loud noise in the midst of our very duties? Then, as if you see certain defenses extending against the harshness of cold and the burning of heat; so that neither does the cold penetrate the open passages, nor does excessive heat scorch. Furthermore, the winding of the inner ears provides a certain number for modulating and discipline. For through the winding of the ears a certain rhythm is created, and the sound of the voice is expressed through certain melodies. Moreover, the fact that we retain the twists and turns of received speech ourselves teaches us the use of the ears. Indeed, just as a sweet voice is heard in the hollows of mountains, or in the recesses of cliffs, or in the winding of rivers, and the echo returns pleasant responses. The very impurities of the ears also serve a useful purpose in binding the voice: so that its hold on us may be stronger both in memory and in gratitude.

63. But what can I say about the nostrils, which possess a bifurcated and narrow orifice that excels at receiving odors, so that the odor does not pass fleetingly, but rather lingers in the nostrils and nourishes the brain and senses through their duct? Therefore, the odor that is received continues to burn longer than words resonate or sights appear. Often, what you have smelled in a brief moment lingers in your nostrils throughout the day. Through them, waste products of the head flow out, and without deception or any harm to the body, they are removed.


There is also a considerable sense of touch, and in it a most delightful pleasure and a sincere judgment. For often by touch we approve what we cannot approve by sight.

Finally, there is also the function of the mouth or tongue, which however supplies strength to all. For the eyes would not have the power of seeing, if they did not receive the power of bodily substance, which is carried by food and drink, and the ears would not have the power of hearing, or the nose of smelling, or the hands of touching, if the entire body were not strengthened by nourishment. Indeed, we become weak unless we restore these powers with the regular supply of appropriate food. Ultimately, when weakened, we take pleasure in sensations, but as if deprived of their resources, they do not perceive their delights.


66. What should I describe about the fortification of teeth, by which food is chewed and the full expression of voice is made? What nourishment would delight without teeth? Finally, we often observe that those in the prime of life grow old more quickly solely because, with missing teeth, they are unable to take in the power of more substantial food. Therefore, infancy is mute because it does not yet have the vocal organ.

67. Language, moreover, is not only most precious in speaking, but also in eating. For it is, as it were, the voice of the speaker and the hand of the eater, which presents and serves food flowing from the teeth. The voice is also carried by the movement of the air, and is carried through empty space, and the same force that strikes the air now moves, now soothes the emotion of the listener, appeases the angry, raises up the broken, comforts the sorrowful. Therefore let us share a common sound with the singing birds. However, with whom a creature uses a sound, which is reasonable, it cannot be shared with all irrational creatures. For even our senses are shared with other animals, but they do not use the same means as those other animals. The cow raises its eyes to the sky, but it does not know what it is looking at. The wild animals raise their eyes, the birds raise their eyes, their sight is free for everyone: but only humans have the ability to interpret the emotions of what they see. He observes with his eyes the rising and setting of the signs, he sees the ornamentation of the sky, he marvels at the orbs of the stars, he also understands the various glimmers of each, when Hesperus rises, when Lucifer: why does that evening star shine, why does this morning star radiate: what movements does Orion have, what lunar eclipses: how the sun knows its own settings, and how it keeps the rhythm of its own course with solemnity. Other living beings also hear, but who, besides humans, knows through listening? The secrets of wisdom, which are in the earth, can only be gathered by man through hearing, meditation, and prudence. He who can say, 'I will listen to what the Lord God speaks within me' possesses a most precious gift. It is a great privilege for man to be an instrument of the divine voice and to express heavenly oracles with his earthly lips, just as it is written: 'Cry! What shall I cry?' All flesh is grass (Isa. XL, 6). He understood what he was to say, and he cried out. Let those who map out the spaces of heaven and earth with their radios keep their wisdom to themselves. Let them have their understanding, of which the Lord says: And I will destroy the wisdom of the wise (I Cor. I, 19). I will not establish the numbers of speech and the modes, and the measures of the wisdom of music in place: but I define that wisdom, of which the Prophet says: You have made known to me the uncertain and hidden things of your wisdom (Psal. L, 8).

68. But what shall I say about the kiss of the mouth, which is a pledge of piety and charity? Doves kiss each other, but what about the beauty of a human kiss, in which the emblem of friendship and humanity shines forth, and in which the affection of full charity is expressed with faithfulness? Hence, the Lord, condemning it as a kind of prodigy in the traitor, says, 'Judas, do you betray the Son of Man with a kiss?' (Luke 22:48). Is this the emblem of charity that you convert into a sign of treachery and an indication of faithlessness? Do you use this token of peace as an instrument of cruelty? Therefore, by bestial obedience of the mouth, you accuse someone who brings death rather than someone who carries the bonds of charity, as confirmed by the divine voice of the oracle. Moreover, that which is unique is that only humans express with their mouth what they feel in their heart. Therefore, silent thoughts of the mind are indicated by the words of the mouth. So what is the mouth of a person if not a kind of access to speech, a source of debate, a hall of words, a storehouse of will? We perceive the body of man to be as a kind of royal palace, in which there is indeed a certain quantity of parts, but the form is that of a unity.

69. The throat follows, through which the vital exchange of the whole body takes place, and the supply of this breath is poured in. The arms follow, and the strong muscles of the upper arms, capable hands for working, and fingers suited for grasping. Hence comes more aptness for working, hence the elegance of writing, and that reed of a swiftly writing scribe, by which the oracles of the divine voice are expressed. The hand is the one that serves food to the mouth: the hand is the one that shines with glorious deeds, which acts as a mediator of divine grace at sacred altars, through which we offer and receive the heavenly sacraments: the hand is the one that works and dispenses the divine mysteries together, by whose name the Son of God did not disdain to be revealed, as David says: The right hand of the Lord has wrought power, the right hand of the Lord has exalted me (Ps. CXVII, 16). Hand is that which made all things, as almighty God said: Is it not my hand that made all these things (Isaiah, LXVI, 2)? Hand is the defense of the whole body, the protector of the head. Although it is in an inferior position, it accompanies the entire crown and adorns it with honorable beauty.

70. Who can adequately explain the firmness of the heart and the softness of the belly? For otherwise, the softer viscera could not be nourished, and the cavities of the intestines would undoubtedly be injured by the hard bones. What is as beneficial as the lung being joined to the neighboring boundary of the heart, so that when the heart becomes inflamed with anger and indignation, it can be more quickly tempered by the blood and moisture of the lung? Therefore, the lung is softer because it is always moist, in order to soften the rigidity of indignation. We have thus thoroughly gone through these things, so that we may appear to grasp them as unlearned people, not as doctors who seem to examine and pursue more fully what is hidden in the recesses of nature.

Moreover, the liver also has a fruitful connection with the spleen, which, while it takes in what it itself may feed upon, wipes away whatever impurities it may detect; so that the finer fibres of the liver may allow the thin and subtle remnants of food to pass through, which are transformed into blood, and contribute to the strength, and are not passed out with feces and filth. Moreover, the intestines, enclosing circular coils without any knots, yet connected with each other, show what else but the divine providence of the Creator, so that the food may not quickly pass through and immediately escape from the stomach? But if this were to happen, an unceasing hunger and continual desire to devour would be generated in humans. For, with their organs emptied and depleted as they are emptied by momentary effusion, it would be necessary for an insatiable and unfillable desire for food and drink to be generated, which undoubtedly would be followed by a premature death. Therefore, it is concluded that first food is processed in the upper belly, then it is cooked in the liver, and its vaporized juice is transferred to the other parts of the body; and with this substance, the human limbs are nourished, which young people receive for growth and old people for endurance: the remaining as if superfluous is carried through the intestines and expelled through the transverse orifice.


72. Finally, even in Genesis, the ark of Noah is taken as a metaphor for the construction of the human body, of which God said: Make for yourself an ark out of square timbers, you shall make rooms in it, and you shall seal it inside and outside with pitch, and thus you shall make the ark (Gen. 6:14). And further: You shall make a door in the side. And you shall make the lower part of the ark with two divisions and three divisions (Ibid. 16). Therefore, the Lord signifies that the door is in the rear, through which excess food is expelled. For indeed our Creator, led by the sight of man, turns away from the appearance of relics, lest while we cleanse the bowels, we defile the sight. At the same time, consider this, that those things which are full of modesty are placed in a location where they cannot be dishonored by uncovered garments.

73. The pulse of the veins is either a messenger of weakness or of health. However, even though they are spread throughout the whole body, they are neither bare nor uncovered, but are covered by delicate membranes so that there is the opportunity to investigate and the swiftness of sensing, since there is no thickness in the organs that could obstruct the pulse. All the bones, too, are covered by delicate membranes and bound by nerves; especially the head is covered by a delicate skin. They cover themselves with denser hair so that they can have some protection against rain and cold. As for the genitalia, which receive the seminal fluid for the purpose and pleasure of procreation through veins drawn from the neck to the kidneys and loins.

74. What about the duty of the feet, which bear the whole body without any harm from the burden? The flexible knee, by which offense is mitigated before the Lord above all others, anger is appeased, and grace is provoked. For this is the gift of the highest Father to the Son: that at the name of Jesus every knee should bend, of those in heaven, on earth, and under the earth; and every tongue confess that the Lord Jesus is in the glory of God the Father (Phil. 2:10-11). For there are two things that above all else appease God, humility and faith. Therefore, it expresses the attitude of humility and the diligent service of obedience: faith equals the Son to the Father, and both confess the same glory. However, rightly so, a man has not many, but two feet; for four feet belong to wild animals and beasts, and two to birds. Therefore, a man is like a bird, who seeks lofty things with his sight and flies with a certain stroke of the senses' keenness. And therefore it is said about him: Your youth will be renewed like the eagle's (Ps. 103:5); because he is closer to heavenly things and higher than eagles, who can say: But our conversation is in heaven.

Chapter X.

On the sixth day, about to bring an end to the entire work, it explains how God rested, and it crowns the discourse with praises of the Creator.

But now let our conversation come to an end, since the sixth day is completed, and the sum of worldly work is concluded; namely, the perfect man in whom is the sovereignty of all living creatures, and the highest unity of the universe, and all the grace of the earthly creation. Certainly, let us keep silent; for God has rested from all the works of the world: He has rested in the withdrawal of man, He has rested in his mind and purpose. For He had made man capable of reason, an imitator of Himself, an emulator of virtues, desirous of heavenly graces. In these rests God who says: On whom shall I rest, if not on the humble, and quiet, and trembling at My words? (Isaiah 66:2)

Therefore, thanks be to the Lord our God who made such a work in which He would rest. He made the heaven, I do not read that He rested; He made the earth, I do not read that He rested; He made the sun, the moon, and the stars, I do not read that He rested: but I do read that He made man, and then He rested, having someone to whom He could forgive sins. Or perhaps at that time the mystery of the future passion of the Lord had already preceded, by which it was revealed that Christ would rest in man, who destined rest for Himself in the body for the redemption of man, as He Himself said: I slept and I rested, and I rose; for the Lord received me (Ps. III, 6). For he himself rested, who made it: to whom be honor, glory, perpetuity from age to age, and now, and always, and forever. Amen.